Asymmetric Reduction of Cyclic Imines by Imine Reductase Enzymes in Non-Conventional Solvents.

The first enantioselective reduction of 2-substituted cyclic imines to the corresponding amines (pyrrolidines, piperidines, and azepines) by imine reductases (IREDs) in non-conventional solvents is reported. The best results were obtained in a glycerol/phosphate buffer 1 : 1 mixture, in which heterocyclic amines were produced with full conversions (>99 %), moderate to good yields (22-84 %) and excellent S-enantioselectivities (up to >99 % ee). Remarkably, the process can be performed at a 100 mM substrate loading, which, for the model compound, means a concentration of 14.5 g L-1 . A fed-batch protocol was also developed for a convenient scale-up transformation, and one millimole of substrate 1 a was readily converted into 120 mg of enantiopure amine (S)-2 a with a remarkable 80 % overall yield. This aspect strongly contributes to making the process potentially attractive for large-scale applications in terms of economic and environmental sustainability for a good number of substrates used to produce enantiopure cyclic amines of high pharmaceutical interest.

Synthesis of 5-Hydrazino-2-cyclopentenone Derivatives by a Gold(I)-Catalyzed Cycloisomerization/Hetero-Diels-Alder/Ring-Opening Tandem Reaction of Enynyl Acetates.

A highly efficient, one-pot synthesis of ring-fused 5-hydrazino-2-cyclopentenone derivatives is achieved by a gold(I)-catalyzed cycloisomerization/hetero-Diels-Alder/ring-opening tandem reaction of suitable enynyl acetates. By mixing the latter with a dialkylazodicarboxylate in the presence of a gold(I) catalyst, the 1,3-acyloxy migration/Nazarov cyclization process leads to dienyl acetate intermediates which are trapped by the heterodienophile present in situ. This provides strained intermediates which undergo highly regioselective ring opening by a retro aza-Michael reaction promoted by traces of water, eventually yielding the target compounds. Six- and seven-membered ring-fused cyclopentenones and piperidine- and tetrahydropyran-fused cyclopentenones bearing a pendant hydrazino functionality on a bridgehead carbon atom can be obtained in high yield (68-96%) by this approach.

Gold(I)-Catalyzed Cycloisomerization/Hetero-Diels-Alder Reaction/Ring Opening Cascade to Functionalized Cyclopentadienes.

Six- and seven-membered ring-fused, functionalized cyclopentadienes can be obtained in moderate to excellent yields by a cascade process entailing the Au(I)-catalyzed propargyl Claisen rearrangement/Nazarov cyclization of propargyl vinyl ethers, the hetero-Diels-Alder reaction with dialkylazodicarboxylates, and the spontaneous conversion of cycloaddition products into cyclopentadienes by a highly regioselective cleavage of a C-N bond. Depending on the treatment of the crude reaction mixtures, two types of products can be obtained: cyclopentadienes with pendant hydrazine and aldehyde moieties that intramolecularly react to form hemiaminals are obtained in 43-52% overall yields when the crude reaction mixtures are left over K2CO3 in a DCM solution. Instead, by reducing in situ the aldehyde group just after addition of the heterodienophile, the regioselective C-N bond cleavage generates the corresponding cyclopentadienes bearing a hydrazine and an alcohol appendage in excellent yields (66-82%) over four steps, all in one pot. Two examples from the latter class of compounds were also converted into ring-fused, functionalized cyclopentadienes, bearing a protected amino group, by the selective N-N cleavage of the hydrazine moiety.

One-Pot Access to 1,7a-Dihydro-1,3a-ethano-indene and 1,8a-Dihydro-1,3a-ethano-azulene Skeletons by a Sequential Gold(I)-Catalyzed Propargyl Claisen Rearrangement/Nazarov Cyclization/[4+2] Cycloaddition Reaction.

An efficient synthetic approach to the tricyclic 1,7a-dihydro-1,3a-ethano-indene and 1,8a-dihydro-1,3a-ethano-azulene skeletons from suitable propargyl vinyl ethers is based on a one-pot, multistep process entailing a gold(I)-catalyzed propargyl Claisen rearrangement/Nazarov cyclization, a [4+2] cycloaddition of the formed six- or seven-membered ring-fused cyclopentadiene system, and a final protection step for the easy isolation and purification of the products by chromatography.

Pentannulation of N-heterocycles by a tandem gold-catalyzed [3,3]-rearrangement/Nazarov reaction of propargyl ester derivatives: a computational study on the crucial role of the nitrogen atom.

The tandem gold(I)-catalyzed rearrangement/Nazarov reaction of enynyl acetates in which the double bond is embedded in a piperidine ring was computationally and experimentally studied. The theoretical calculations predict that the position of the propargylic acetate substituent has a great impact on the reactivity. In contrast to our previous successful cyclization of the 2-substituted substrates, where the nitrogen favors the formation of the cyclized final product, the substitution at position 3 was computed to have a deleterious effect on the electronic properties of the molecules, increasing the activation barriers of the Nazarov reaction. The sluggish reactivity of 3-substituted piperidines predicted by the calculations was further confirmed by the results obtained with some designed substrates.

Synthesis of Indenes by Tandem Gold(I)-Catalyzed Claisen Rearrangement/Hydroarylation Reaction of Propargyl Vinyl Ethers.

The tandem gold(I)-catalyzed propargyl Claisen rearrangement/hydroarylation reaction of suitable propargyl vinyl ethers, followed by in situ reduction of the resulting carbonyl group, provides functionalized indenes in good to excellent yields. The reaction occurs at room temperature in dichloromethane in the presence of 3 mol % [IPrAuCl]/AgBF4 as the best catalytic system. Instead, cyclization of the allene intermediate either does not take place or is very slow with phosphine ligands. A variety of substituents and functional groups present on the substrate are tolerated. The effect of the aryl ring substituents and the results of a density functional theory computational study suggest that the final hydroarylation is the rate-determining step of this cascade process. Further in situ chain elongation, prior final work up of the tandem process, can be carried out by Wittig olefination of the aldehyde functionality, thus incrementing the diversity of the products obtained.

Pentannulation Reaction by Tandem Gold(I)-Catalyzed Propargyl Claisen Rearrangement/Nazarov Cyclization of Enynyl Vinyl Ethers.

The tandem gold(I)-catalyzed propargyl Claisen rearrangement/Nazarov cyclization of propargyl vinyl ether derivatives, followed by in situ reduction of the resulting carbonyl group, provides functionalized cyclopentadienes fused with various N-hetero- and carbacycles, including indoles, in good to excellent yields. The reaction occurs with high regioselectivity, with the position of the double bonds in the five-membered ring depending on the type of (hetero)cycle bearing the propargylic moiety and the side chain on the latter.

Stereodivergent synthesis of 5-aminopipecolic acids and application in the preparation of a cyclic RGD peptidomimetic as a nanomolar αVß3 integrin ligand.

A stereodivergent strategy was devised to obtain enantiopure cis and trans 5-aminopipecolic acids (5-APAs) in suitably protected forms to be employed in peptide synthesis as conformationally constrained α- and δ-amino acids. The cis isomer was used as a δ-amino acid to construct a cyclic RGD-containing peptidomimetic, the ability of which to compete with biotinylated vitronectin for binding with the isolated αVß3 integrin was measured (IC50 = 4.2 ± 0.9 nM). A complete 1H NMR and computational conformational analysis was performed to elucidate the reasons for the high affinity of this cyclic peptidomimetic in comparison with cilengitide.

Synthesis and conformational analysis of peptides embodying 2,3-methanopipecolic acids.

The conformational analysis of linear and cyclic peptides incorporating 2,3-methanopipecolic acids (or Cyclopropane Pipecolic Acids, CPAs) as conformationally constrained α-amino acids is reported. Compared to peptides containing proline or pipecolic acid, a striking increase of the cis isomer (42-92%) around the CPA amide bond is observed, both in water and organic solvents, when these unnatural amino acids are embodied in linear amino acid sequences. The rotational barrier around the same bond in water was calculated, giving results comparable to that for the prolyl cis/trans isomerization. In organic solvents, CPAs at the i + 2 position of a peptide induce the formation of a type VIa ß-turn secondary structure. When incorporated into a cyclic peptide, the cis geometry around the 2,3-methanopipecolic amide bond still prevails and, in the example studied herein (a cyclic RGD-containing ligand of αVß3 integrin mimicking Cilengitide), conservation of the backbone geometry and side chain spatial orientation of the native peptide is also found. Given the importance of the proline cis/trans isomerism in many biological processes, CPAs could be useful as proline mimetics for probing protein-ligand interactions and generating novel bioactive compounds.

Total Synthesis of Bruceolline I.

The first total synthesis of the natural product bruceolline I, isolated in small quantities from the ethanol extract of Brucea mollis stems, was achieved in 29% yield over nine steps and with high enantiomeric purity (>98%). The key step of the process is the tandem gold-catalyzed rearrangement/Nazarov reaction of a propargylic acetate derivative. This synthesis provides a sufficient amount of synthesized bruceolline I for further bioassays.

Construction of Cyclopenta[b]indol-1-ones by a Tandem Gold(I)-Catalyzed Rearrangement/Nazarov Reaction and Application to the Synthesis of Bruceolline H.

A tandem gold(I)-catalyzed rearrangement/Nazarov reaction of enynyl acetates which efficiently provides cyclopenta[b]indol-1-ones as useful precursors for the synthesis of natural and bioactive compounds is described. The synthetic potential of the methodology is demonstrated by the first total synthesis of bruceolline H.

Cyclic RGD peptidomimetics containing 4- and 5-amino-cyclopropane pipecolic acid (CPA) templates as dual αVß3 and α5ß1 integrin ligands.

4-Amino- and 5-amino-cyclopropane pipecolic acids (CPAs) with cis relative stereochemistry between the carboxylic and amino groups were used as templates to prepare cyclic peptidomimetics containing the RGD sequence as possible integrin binders. The peptidomimetic c(RGD8) built on the 5-amino-CPA displayed an inhibition activity (IC50=2.4nM) toward the αvß3 integrin receptor (expressed in M21 human melanoma cell line) comparable to that of the most potent antagonists reported so far and it was ten times more active than the corresponding antagonist c(RGD7) derived from the isomeric 4-amino-CPA. Both compounds were also nanomolar ligands of the α5ß1 integrin (expressed in human erythroleukemia cell line K562). These results suggest that the CPA-derived templates are suitable for the preparation of dual αvß3 and α5ß1 ligands to suppress integrin-mediated events as well as for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy.

Stereochemical Assignment of Strigolactone Analogues Confirms Their Selective Biological Activity.

Strigolactones (SLs) are new plant hormones with various developmental functions. They are also soil signaling chemicals that are required for establishing beneficial mycorrhizal plant/fungus symbiosis. In addition, SLs play an essential role in inducing seed germination in root-parasitic weeds, which are one of the seven most serious biological threats to food security. There are around 20 natural SLs that are produced by plants in very low quantities. Therefore, most of the knowledge on SL signal transduction and associated molecular events is based on the application of synthetic analogues. Stereochemistry plays a crucial role in the structure-activity relationship of SLs, as compounds with an unnatural D-ring configuration may induce biological effects that are unrelated to SLs. We have synthesized a series of strigolactone analogues, whose absolute configuration has been elucidated and related with their biological activity, thus confirming the high specificity of the response. Analogues bearing the R-configured butenolide moiety showed enhanced biological activity, which highlights the importance of this stereochemical motif.

Cyclopropane pipecolic acids as templates for linear and cyclic peptidomimetics: application in the synthesis of an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)-containing peptide as an αvß3 integrin ligand.

The synthesis and evaluation of substituted cyclopropane pipecolic acids (CPA) as conformationally restricted templates for linear and cyclic peptidomimetics is reported. A variety of differently substituted (poly)hydroxy- and amino-2-azabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane-1-carboxylic acids were prepared by means of the Pd-catalyzed methoxycarbonylation of suitably functionalized lactam-derived enol phosphates, followed by OH-directed cyclopropanation. CPAs were successfully introduced into a linear peptide sequence to assess the cis/trans isomerism about the pipecolic acid peptide bond, and in a cyclic peptidomimetic that bore the Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) sequence, which displayed nanomolar activity as antagonist of the αvß3 integrin in M21 human melanoma cells. Thus, CPAs appear to be suitable for the generation of novel peptidomimetics for drug discovery.

Tailoring fluorescent strigolactones for in vivo investigations: a computational and experimental study.

Strigolactones (SLs) are a new class of plant hormones whose role has been recently defined in shoot branching, root development and architecture, and nodulation. They are also active in the rhizosphere as signalling molecules in the communication between plants, AMF (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) and parasitic weeds. In spite of the crucial and multifaceted biological role of SLs, the current knowledge on the SL biosynthetic pathway and the perception/transduction mechanism is still incomplete. Both genetic and molecular approaches are required to understand the molecular mechanism by which SLs regulate plant development. Our contribution to this topic is the design and synthesis of fluorescent labelled SL analogues to be used as probes for the detection in vivo of the receptor(s). Knowledge of the putative receptor structure will boost the research on analogues of the natural substrates as required for agricultural applications.

Synthesis of vinylogous amides by gold(I)-catalyzed cyclization of N-Boc-protected 6-alkynyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyridines.

The gold(I)-catalyzed cyclization of N-Boc-protected 6-alkynyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyridines, prepared by the Sonogashira coupling of lactam-derived enol triflates or phosphates, provides vinylogous amides, which are useful intermediates in the synthesis of natural compounds. The Au(I)-catalyzed reaction is carried out with Ph3PAuOTf as a catalyst and proceeds via a 6-endo-dig cyclization to form a vinylgold species that after protodeauration generates a cyclic carbamate intermediate. This intermediate is in most cases not isolated, but the addition of a base to the reaction mixture rapidly and quantitatively delivers the target vinylogous amide. The first synthesis of a natural compound from Sonneratia hainanensis has been accomplished by this approach.

Predicting reactivity and stereoselectivity in the Nazarov reaction: a combined computational and experimental study.

The Nazarov reaction of pentadienyl cations generated by protonation of either dienones or alkoxytrienes has been examined in detail both experimentally and by DFT calculations. In particular, calculations at the B3LYP/6-311G** level of theory accurately predicted, and accounted for, the outcome of the Brønsted acid catalyzed electrocyclization of 4pi-electron systems in which one of the double bonds involved in the process was embedded in N- and S-heterocyclic rings. Calculations showed that both heteroatoms are capable of accelerating the ring closure by stabilizing the partial positive charge which develops at C-6 (C-2) in the transition state, with S-heterocyclic derivatives being more reactive than the corresponding N-containing compounds. In general, pentadienyl cations generated by protonation of alkoxytrienes were expected to react faster than those obtained by protonation of the corresponding dienones, as the latter were stabilized by a hydrogen bond. The presence of a substituent on the heterocyclic ring significantly affects the stereoselectivity (torquoselectivity) only in the case of the N-heterocyclic derivatives, in which a 2-alkyl group is axially oriented, providing the cis-2,5-disubstituted isomer only. Instead, with substituted S-heterocyclic compounds, the anticipated torquoselectivity was very low and, in fact, a 3:1 diastereomeric mixture between the trans and cis products was experimentally found after ring closure. For this study, the synthesis of the appropriate N- and S-containing dienones and alkoxytrienes was realized to evaluate the predictivity power of the DFT computations, which was very good in all of the cases examined, both in terms of reactivity and stereoselectivity. The consistency observed between computational and experimental results, therefore, shows the usefulness of DFT calculations at the B3LYP/6-311G** level of theory as a robust instrument for the prediction of reactivity and stereoselectivity in the Nazarov electrocyclic reaction.

5alpha-Reductase activity in Lycopersicon esculentum: cloning and functional characterization of LeDET2 and evidence of the presence of two isoenzymes.

The full-length cDNA (LeDET2) encoding a 257 amino acid protein homolog of Arabidopsis DET2 (AtDET2) was isolated in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). LeDET2 has 76% similarity with AtDET2 and structural characteristics conserved among plant and mammalian steroid 5alpha-reductases (5alphaRs). LeDET2 is ubiquitously expressed in tomato tissues with higher levels in leaf than in stem, root, seed and callus. When expressed in mammalian cells (COS-7), recombinant LeDET2 was active on substrates typical of mammalian 5alphaRs (progesterone, testosterone, androstenedione), but reduced at very low levels campestenone, the substrate described for AtDET2. Similar results were obtained with the expression in COS-7 of recombinant AtDET2 that showed 5alphaR activity for progesterone and not for campestenone. Recombinant LeDET2 was inhibited by several inhibitors of the human 5alphaRs and the application of an active inhibitor to tomato seedlings induced dwarfism and morphological changes similar to BR-deficient mutants. In tomato tissues, campestenone was 5alpha-reduced in leaf, stem and root homogenates, like progesterone and testosterone, while androstenedione was converted to testosterone, evidencing for the first time a 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in plants. Moreover, two separate 5alphaR activities with different kinetic characteristic and response to inhibitors were characterized in tomato tissues. The presence of two 5alphaR isoenzymes was demonstrated also in Arabidopsis using the det2-1 mutant, in which a residual 5alphaR activity for campestenone and progesterone was evidenced and characterized. Therefore, the existence of two isoenzymes of 5alphaR is probably characteristic of the whole plant kingdom highlighting the similarities between the animal and plant steroid biosynthetic pathways.

Inhibition of human beta-tryptase by Bowman-Birk inhibitor derived peptides: creation of a new tri-functional inhibitor.

Bowman-Birk inhibitor proteins (BBIs), which are potent inhibitors of chymotrypsin-like proteases, do not inhibit human beta-tryptase despite this protein having a chymotrypsin-like fold. We have reported previously that, in contrast, BBI-derived peptides (whose sequences incorporate the solvent exposed reactive site loop motif) are able to inhibit human beta-tryptase. This is due to their small size, which allows them to access the restricted active site(s) of tryptase, which has an unusual tetrameric arrangement with four active sites flanking a central pore. In this paper, we have examined the possibility of creating additional interactions within this pore by adding extensions to the BBI-peptide motif. We have taken the core disulfide-bridged sequence SCTKSIPPQCY and examined a series of extensions, at both the C- and N-termini, that bear a second positively charged Lys residue at their end. The aim was to construct inhibitors that could make additional interactions in tryptase by spanning the gap between adjacent active sites in the enzyme, producing a double-headed inhibitor; a positively charged group was used as the dominant specificity of this enzyme is for a positively charged P1 residue. Both N- and C-terminal extensions are found to produce inhibitors of much increased potency, with a strong dependence of potency on chain length. Moreover, it was found that the C- and N-terminal extensions were able to synergise, with their combination on the same peptide producing an even better inhibitor with a potency 10(4)-fold greater than the original sequence. We suggest that the C- and N-terminal extensions are picking up interactions with separate additional sites on the tryptase, making the doubly extended BBI peptide a tri-functional tryptase inhibitor.

Synthesis of 17beta-N-substituted 19-Nor-10-azasteroids as inhibitors of human 5alpha-reductases I and II.

The synthesis of 17beta-[N-(phenyl)methyl/phenyl-amido] substituted 10-azasteroids has been accomplished by either the TiCl4- or TMSOTf-catalysed reaction of carbamates 11 and 12 with Danishefsky's diene. The reaction provided 5alpha-H isomers 3a-5a and 5beta-H isomers 3b-5b depending on the reaction conditions. Both epimers of each compound were tested against human 5alpha-reductase types I and II. Unexpectedly, 5beta-H compounds were found more active than their 5alpha-H counterparts, the best inhibitors being 3b (IC50=279 and 2000 nM toward isoenzyme I and II, respectively) and 5b (IC50=913 and 247 nM toward isoenzymes I and II, respectively).