Macrocyclic Dual-Locked "Turn-On" Drug for Selective and Traceless Release in Cancer Cells.

Drug safety and efficacy due to premature release into the bloodstream and poor biodistribution remains a problem despite seminal advances in this area. To circumvent these limitations, we report drug cyclization based on dynamic covalent linkages to devise a dual lock for the small-molecule anticancer drug, camptothecin (CPT). Drug activity is "locked" within the cyclic structure by the redox responsive disulfide and pH-responsive boronic acid-salicylhydroxamate and turns on only in the presence of acidic pH, reactive oxygen species and glutathione through traceless release. Notably, the dual-responsive CPT is more active (100-fold) than the non-cleavable (permanently closed) analogue. We further include a bioorthogonal handle in the backbone for functionalization to generate cyclic-locked, cell-targeting peptide- and protein-CPTs, for targeted delivery of the drug and traceless release in triple negative metastatic breast cancer cells to inhibit cell growth at low nanomolar concentrations.

Chemical Reactions in Living Systems.

The term "in vivo ("in the living") chemistry" refers to chemical reactions that take place in a complex living system such as cells, tissue, body liquids, or even in an entire organism. In contrast, reactions that occur generally outside living organisms in an artificial environment (e.g., in a test tube) are referred to as in vitro. Over the past decades, significant contributions have been made in this rapidly growing field of in vivo chemistry, but it is still not fully understood, which transformations proceed efficiently without the formation of by-products or how product formation in such complex environments can be characterized. Potential applications can be imagined that synthesize drug molecules directly within the cell or confer new cellular functions through controlled chemical transformations that will improve the understanding of living systems and develop new therapeutic strategies. The guiding principles of this contribution are twofold: 1) Which chemical reactions can be translated from the laboratory to the living system? 2) Which characterization methods are suitable for studying reactions and structure formation in complex living environments?

Peptide Bispecifics Inhibiting HIV-1 Infection by an Orthogonal Chemical and Supramolecular Strategy.

Viral infections pose a significant threat to human health, and effective antiviral strategies are urgently needed. Antiviral peptides have emerged as a promising class of therapeutic agents due to their unique properties and mechanisms of action. While effective on their own, combining antiviral peptides may allow us to enhance their potency and to prevent viral resistance. Here, we developed an orthogonal chemical strategy to prepare a heterodimeric peptide conjugate assembled on a protein-based nanoplatform. Specifically, we combined the optimized version of two peptides inhibiting HIV-1 by distinct mechanisms. Virus-inhibitory peptide (VIRIP) is a 20 amino acid fragment of α1-antitrypsin that inhibits HIV-1 by targeting the gp41 fusion peptide. Endogenous peptide inhibitor of CXCR4 (EPI-X4) is a 16-residue fragment of human serum albumin that prevents HIV-1 entry by binding to the viral CXCR4 co-receptor. Optimized forms of both peptides are assembled on supramolecular nanoplatforms through the streptavidin-biotin interaction. We show that the construct consisting of the two different peptides (SAv-VIR-102C9-EPI-X4 JM#173-C) shows increased activity against CCR5- and CXCR4-tropic HIV-1 variants. Our results are a proof of concept that peptides with different modes of action can be assembled on nanoplatforms to enhance their antiviral activity.

Amphiphilic Polymer Hydrogel-supported Catalysts: Tuning the Accessibility to the Catalytic Site by Molecular Jacketing.

Crosslinked amphiphilic hydrogels, prepared using a peripherally clickable hyperbranched polyester (HBP) and PEG-diazides of different molecular weights, were used to ligate Cu utilizing the triazole rings formed by the alkyne-azide click reaction. Since only a fraction of the peripheral propargyl groups in the HB polyester are needed to generate the crosslinked polymer, the remaining were clicked with different types of azides, such as MPEG azide, decyl azide or 4-methylbenzyl azide, to create a molecular jacket around the catalytic sites that can potentially influence the catalytic activity and reaction outcome. The crosslinked films ligated with Cu functioned very effectively to catalyse alkyne-azide click reactions, both in water and in organic solvents; the nature of the molecular jacket around the catalytic site had a clear influence the reaction rate, which depended upon the relative solubilities of the reactants. The gel-supported catalyst films were reused multiple times with little loss in catalytic activity.

Assembly of pH-Responsive Antibody-Drug-Inspired Conjugates.

With the advent of chemical strategies that allow the design of smart bioconjugates, peptide- and protein-drug conjugates are emerging as highly efficient therapeutics to overcome limitations of conventional treatment, as exemplified by antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs). While targeting peptides serve similar roles as antibodies to recognize overexpressed receptors on diseased cell surfaces, peptide-drug conjugates suffer from poor stability and bioavailability due to their low molecular weights. Through a combination of a supramolecular protein-based assembly platform and a pH-responsive linker, the authors devise herein the convenient assembly of a trivalent protein-drug conjugate. The conjugate should ideally possess distinct features of ADCs such as 1) recognition sites that recognize cell receptor and are arranged on 2) distinct locations on a high molecular weight protein scaffold, 3) a stimuli-responsive linker, as well as 4) an attached payload such as a drug molecule. These AD-like conjugates target cancer cells that overexpress somatostatin receptors, can enable controlled release in the microenvironment of cancer cells through a new pH-responsive biotin linker, and exhibit stability in biological media.

KAT Ligation for Rapid and Facile Covalent Attachment of Biomolecules to Surfaces.

The efficient and bioorthogonal chemical ligation reaction between potassium acyltrifluoroborates (KATs) and hydroxylamines (HAs) was used for the surface functionalization of a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) with biomolecules. An alkane thioether molecule with one terminal KAT group (S-KAT) was synthesized and adsorbed onto a gold surface, placing a KAT group on the top of the monolayer (KAT-SAM). As an initial test case, an aqueous solution of a hydroxylamine (HA) derivative of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) (HA-PEG) was added to this KAT-SAM at room temperature to perform the surface KAT ligation. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) monitoring confirmed the rapid attachment of the PEG moiety onto the SAM. By surface characterization methods such as contact angle and ellipsometry, the attachment of PEG layer was confirmed, and covalent amide-bond formation was established by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). In a proof-of-concept study, the applicability of this surface KAT ligation for the attachment of biomolecules to surfaces was tested using a model protein, green fluorescent protein (GFP). A GFP was chemically modified with an HA linker to synthesize HA-GFP and added to the KAT-SAM under aqueous dilute conditions. A rapid attachment of the GFP on the surface was observed in real time by QCM-D. Despite the fact that such biomolecules have a variety of unprotected functional groups within their structures, the surface KAT ligation proceeded rapidly in a chemoselective manner. Our results demonstrate the versatility of the KAT ligation for the covalent attachment of a variety of water-soluble molecules onto SAM surfaces under dilute and biocompatible conditions to form stable, natural amide bonds.

Synthesis of Polymers Containing Potassium Acyltrifluoroborates (KATs) and Post-polymerization Ligation and Conjugation.

We report the synthesis of monomers for atom-transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and a reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) agent bearing trifluoroborate iminiums (TIMs), which are quantitatively converted into potassium acyltrifluoroborates (KATs) after polymerization. The resulting KAT-containing polymers are suitable for rapid amide-forming ligations for both post-polymerization modification and polymer conjugation. The polymer conjugation occurs rapidly, even under dilute (micromolar) aqueous conditions at ambient temperatures, thereby enabling the synthesis of a variety of linear and star-shaped block copolymers. In addition, we applied post-polymerization modification to the covalent linking of a photocaged cyclic antibiotic (gramicidin S) to the side chains of the KAT-containing copolymer. Cellular assays revealed that the polymer-antibiotic conjugate is biocompatible and provides efficient light-controlled release of the antibiotic on demand.

A Threonine-Forming Oxazetidine Amino Acid for the Chemical Synthesis of Proteins through KAHA Ligation.

α-Ketoacid-hydroxylamine (KAHA) ligation allows the coupling of unprotected peptide segments through the chemoselective formation of an amide bond. Currently, the most widely used variant employs a 5-membered cyclic hydroxylamine that forms a homoserine ester as the primary ligation product. In order to directly form amide-linked threonine residues at the ligation site, we prepared a new 4-membered cyclic hydroxylamine building block. This monomer was applied to the synthesis of wild-type ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UbcH5a (146 residues) and Titin protein domain TI I27 (89 residues). Both the resulting UbcH5a and the variant with two homoserine residues showed identical activity to a recombinant variant in a ubiquitination assay.

Leaving Groups as Traceless Topological Modifiers for the Synthesis of Topologically Isomeric Polymer Networks.

The chemical and topological structure of polymer networks can seldom be orthogonally controlled. For example, novel network topologies are often accessed via the direct incorporation of supramolecular assemblies into the network structure, introducing potentially undesirable chemical components. Here, we address this deficiency by programming topology into network precursors through the incorporation of self-assembly motifs in leaving groups, which become "traceless topological modifiers." Our method enables us to control polymer network topology using self-assembled structures as templates that are not themselves incorporated into the network. We demonstrate this strategy using a model network formed through potassium acyltrifluoroborate (KAT) ligation. Two four-arm polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based star polymers prepared with either O-ethyl or O-octyl carbamoyl hydroxylamine chain ends serve as network precursors, where differences in chain end hydrophobicity produce different self-assembly states in solution. Addition of a bis-KAT reagent to these star polymers induces amide bond formation and concomitant expulsion of the ethyl or octyl traceless topological modifiers, producing topologically isomeric PEG gels with identical chemical compositions yet vastly different physical properties. This work highlights the impact of topology on polymer network properties and provides a new strategy, traceless topological modification, for polymer network design.

Covalently functionalized amide cross-linked hydrogels from primary amines and polyethylene glycol acyltrifluoroborates (PEG-KATs).

A new method for the rapid preparation of chemically cross-linked hydrogels based on a multi-arm polyethylene glycol (PEG) bearing potassium acyl trifluoroborate (KAT) functional groups with multi-dentate amines is described. These scaffolds - prepared in aqueous buffer - give strong, transparent hydrogels. At pH 3, the gel formation is complete within seconds, and the reaction rate can be tuned by modulating the pH. Rheology measurements show that the hydrogel properties can be tuned as a function of both the weight percent of solids in the gel and the denticity of amine cross-linker, allowing for predictable formation of gels with desired traits. This process relies on a rapid amide-forming reaction of KATs and in situ generated N-chloroamines. Numerous commercially available amines, including di-, tri- and tetra-functional amines as well as peptides and carbohydrates serve as effective cross-linkers. Monodentate amines included in the gelation mixture are covalently linked into the gel matrix by amide-bonds, allowing gels containing immobilized molecules including dyes, sensors, or biotin amine, to be prepared in a single step from simple starting materials. The ability to induce gelation only upon addition of equimolar amounts of an inexpensive inducer (N-chlorosuccinimide) allows premixed components to be stored as an aqueous solution for weeks and converted to gels on demand.