Phylogenetics of Australasian gall flies (Diptera: Fergusoninidae): Evolutionary patterns of host-shifting and gall morphology.

This study investigated host-specificity and phylogenetic relationships in Australian galling flies, Fergusonina Malloch (Diptera: Fergusoninidae), in order to assess diversity and explore the evolutionary history of host plant affiliation and gall morphology. A DNA barcoding approach using COI data from 203 Fergusonina specimens from 5gall types on 56 host plant species indicated 85 presumptive fly species. These exhibited a high degree of host specificity; of the 40 species with multiple representatives, each fed only on a single host genus, 29 (72.5%) were strictly monophagous, and 11 (27.5%) were reared from multiple closely related hosts. COI variation within species was not correlated with either sample size or geographic distance. However variation was greater within oligophagous species, consistent with expectations of the initial stages of host-associated divergence during speciation. Phylogenetic analysis using both nuclear and mitochondrial genes revealed host genus-restricted clades but also clear evidence of multiple colonizations of both host plant genus and host species. With the exception of unilocular peagalls, evolution of gall type was somewhat constrained, but to a lesser degree than host plant association. Unilocular peagalls arose more often than any other gall type, were primarily located at the tips of the phylogeny, and did not form clades comprising more than a few species. For ecological reasons, species of this gall type are predicted to harbor substantially less genetic variation than others, possibly reducing evolutionary flexibility resulting in reduced diversification in unilocular gallers.

Genetic differentiation associated with host plants and geography among six widespread species of South American Blepharoneura fruit flies (Tephritidae).

Tropical herbivorous insects are astonishingly diverse, and many are highly host-specific. Much evidence suggests that herbivorous insect diversity is a function of host plant diversity; yet, the diversity of some lineages exceeds the diversity of plants. Although most species of herbivorous fruit flies in the Neotropical genus Blepharoneura are strongly host-specific (they deposit their eggs in a single host plant species and flower sex), some species are collected from multiple hosts or flowers and these may represent examples of lineages that are diversifying via changes in host use. Here, we investigate patterns of diversification within six geographically widespread Blepharoneura species that have been collected and reared from at least two host plant species or host plant parts. We use microsatellites to (1) test for evidence of local genetic differentiation associated with different sympatric hosts (different plant species or flower sexes) and (2) examine geographic patterns of genetic differentiation across multiple South American collection sites. In four of the six fly species, we find evidence of local genetic differences between flies collected from different hosts. All six species show evidence of geographic structure, with consistent differences between flies collected in the Guiana Shield and flies collected in Amazonia. Continent-wide analyses reveal - in all but one instance - that genetically differentiated flies collected in sympatry from different host species or different sex flowers are not one another's closest relatives, indicating that genetic differences often arise in allopatry before, or at least coincident with, the evolution of novel host use.

HIV care need not hamper maternity care: a descriptive analysis of integration of services in rural Malawi.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of reproductive health care and incidence of paediatric HIV infection during the expansion of antiretroviral therapy and services for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission in rural Malawi, and the influence of integration of these HIV-related services into general health services. DESIGN: Descriptive analysis. SETTING: Thyolo District, with a population of 600,000, an HIV prevalence of 21% and a total fertility rate of 5.7 in 2004. POPULATION: Women attending reproductive health services care in 2005 and 2010. METHODS: Review of facility records and databases for routine monitoring. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Use of antenatal, intrapartum, postpartum, family planning and sexually transmitted infection services; incidence of HIV infection in infants born to mothers who received prevention of mother-to-child transmission care. RESULTS: There was a marked increase in the uptake of perinatal care: pregnant women in 2010 were 50% more likely to attend at least one antenatal visit (RR 1.50, 95% CI 1.48-1.51); were twice as likely to deliver at a healthcare facility (RR 2.05, 95% CI 2.01-2.08); and were more than four times as likely to present for postpartum care (RR 4.40, 95% CI 4.25-4.55). Family planning consultations increased by 40% and the number of women receiving treatment for sexually transmitted infections doubled. Between 2007 and 2010, the number of HIV-exposed infants who underwent testing for HIV went up from 421 to 1599/year, and the proportion testing positive decreased from 13.3 to 5.0%; infants were 62% less likely to test HIV positive (RR 0.38, 95% CI 0.27-0.52). CONCLUSIONS: During the expansion and integration of HIV care, the use of reproductive health services increased and the outcomes of infants born to HIV-infected mothers improved. HIV care may be successfully integrated into broader reproductive health services.

Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism method to distinguish three mealybug groups within the Planococcus citri-P. minor species complex (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae).

The mealybug species Planococcus citri (Risso) and Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) have special significance to U.S. quarantine and U.S. agriculture. Commonly intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry, they are difficult to identify based on morphological characters. This study presents a molecular method for distinguishing P. citri, P. minor, and a genetically distinct group that is morphologically identical to P. citri, from Hawaii. This method uses polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by restriction fragment polymorphism analysis (RFLP) using the restriction enzymes BspH1, BsmH1, and HpH1. The resulting band patterns can be visualized in a 2% agarose gel and are sufficient to differentiate between the three entities mentioned above. PCR-RFLP diagnostics can be used for all life stages and is cheaper and faster than DNA sequencing.

[Sociodemographic differences in the participation in "early detection of cancer examinations" in Germany--a review]. / Soziodemografische Unterschiede in der Teilnahme an Krebsfrüherkennungsuntersuchungen (KFU) in Deutschland--Eine Ubersicht.

In 1971 a statutory programme aiming at the early detection of cancer was established in Germany. Since then, acceptance has been low, especially among men. In 2002, 49 % of the women, but only 20 % of the men entitled to screening, took part in the free preventive medical screening. This paper gives an overview of the research done in Germany between 1973 and 2003, examining the associations of sociodemographic factors with participation in cancer screening. All studies show that participation rates increase steadily with age in men, but decrease in elderly women (55 years and older). Participation rates among women are significantly associated with educational level and occupational status. Among men, however, the relationship between socio-economic status and attendance appears to be less pronounced. Since 1971, participation rates have increased much more among women than among men, but, interestingly, the reasons for the gender differences in attendance rates have not been studied until now. Variables which were identified in international studies as predictors of participation, such as physician's recommendation or marital status, should be acknowledged in future research.

Histological comparisons of fergusobia/fergusonina-induced galls on different myrtaceous hosts.

The putative mutualism between different host-specific Fergusobia nematodes and Fergusonina flies is manifested in a variety of gall types involving shoot or inflorescence buds, individual flower buds, stems, or young leaves in the plant family Myrtaceae. Different types of galls in the early-to-middle stages of development, with host-specific species of Fergusobia/Fergusonina, were collected from Australian members of the subfamily Leptospermoideae (six species of Eucalyptus, two species of Corymbia, and seven species of broad-leaved Melaleuca). Galls were sectioned and histologically examined to assess morphological changes induced by nematode/fly mutualism. The different gall forms were characterized into four broad categories: (i) individual flower bud, (ii) terminal and axial bud, (iii) 'basal rosette' stem, and (iv) flat leaf. Gall morphology in all four types appeared to result from species-specific selection of the oviposition site and timing and number of eggs deposited in a particular plant host. In all cases, early parasitism by Fergusobia/Fergusonina involved several layers of uninucleate, hypertrophied cells lining the lumen of each locule (gall chamber where each fly larva and accompanying nematodes develop). Hypertrophied cells in galls were larger than normal epidermal cells, and each had an enlarged nucleus, nucleolus, and granular cytoplasm that resembled shoot bud gall cells induced by nematodes in the Anguinidae.

Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment-length polymorphism method to distinguish Liriomyza huidobrensis from L. Langei (Diptera: Agromyzidae) applied to three recent leafminer invasions.

A molecular method is presented for differentiating the morphologically cryptic leafminers Liriomyza langei Frick and L. huidobrensis (Blanchard). This method requires polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of a 1031-bp region of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase DNA followed by restriction fragment analysis using the restriction enzymes SpeI and EcoRV. Spel cuts the mitochondrial fragment of L. langei into two fragments, but does not cut the L. huidobrensis fragment. EcoRV cuts the L. huidobrensis fragment into two fragments, but does not cut the L. langei fragment. This PCR-restriction fragment-length polymorphism (RFLP) method is faster and less costly than DNA sequencing,which is currently the only other way to differentiate these two species. We apply the method to samples from recently introduced leafminer populations in Sri Lanka, Canada, and South Africa and find that the invasive leafminer in all three locations is L. huidobrensis.

Fergusobia/Fergusonina-induced Shoot Bud Gall Development on Melaleuca quinquenervia.

Fergusobia nematodes and Fergusonina flies are mutualists that cause a variety of gall types on myrtaceous plant buds and young leaves. The biology of an isolate of the gall complex was studied in its native range in Australia for possible use in southern Florida as a biological control agent against the invasive broad-leaved paperbark tree, Melaleuca quinquenervia. Timed studies with caged Fergusonina flies on young branches of M. quinquenervia revealed that females are synovigenic with lifetime fecundities of 183 +/- 42 (standard error; SE) eggs and longevities of 17 +/- 2 days. None of the male flies but all dissected female flies contained parasitic female nematodes (range = 3-15), nematode eggs (12-112), and nematode juveniles (78-1,750). Female flies deposited eggs (34 +/- 6; 8-77 per bud) and nematode juveniles (114 +/- 15; 44-207 per bud) into bud apices within 15 days. Histological sections of shoot buds suggested that nematodes induce the formation of hypertrophied, uninucleate plant cells prior to fly larval eclosion. Enlarged size, granular cytoplasm, and enlarged nucleus and nucleolus characterized these cells, which appeared similar to those of other species galled by nematodes in the Anguinidae. Observations of ovipositional behavior revealed that female Fergusonina sp. create diagnostic oviposition scars. The presence of these scars may facilitate recognition of host use during specificity screening.

Molecular phylogenetics of the holly leafminers (Diptera: Agromyzidae: Phytomyza): species limits, speciation, and dietary specialization.

A molecular phylogenetic analysis was conducted to determine relationships and to investigate character evolution in the Phytomyza ilicis group of leafmining flies on hollies (Aquifoliaceae: Ilex). A total of 2207 bp of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I and II genes were sequenced for all known holly leafminers, as well as for several undescribed members of this group. Maximum-parsimony analysis of the sequence data indicates that these leafminers form a monophyletic group with the inclusion of an undescribed leafminer that feeds on the distantly related plant Gelsemium sempevirens (Loganiaceae). Species boundaries of previously known and of undescribed holly leafmining species were confirmed with the molecular data, with one exception. Optimization of variable ecological and morphological characters onto the most parsimonious phylogeny suggests that these traits are evolutionarily labile, requiring multiple instances of convergence and/or reversal to explain their evolutionary history. Speciation in holly leafminers is associated with host shifts and appears to involve colonization of new hosts more often than cospeciation as the hosts diverge. Monophagy is the most common feeding pattern in holly leafminers, and more generalized feeding is inferred to have evolved at least two separate times, possibly as a prelude to speciation.

Molecular evidence of cryptic species within the Liriomyza huidobrensis (Diptera: Agromyzidae).

Phylogenetic relationships among populations of the polyphagous pea leafminer, Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard), were investigated using DNA sequence data. Maximum parsimony analysis of 941 bp of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I and II genes showed that L. huidobrensis contains two well-defined monophyletic groups, one composed of specimens from California and Hawaii and one composed of specimens from South and Central America together with populations that have been recently introduced into other parts of the world. The differentiation between the two clades within L. huidobrensis is equivalent to that seen between other agromyzid species, suggesting that L. huidobrensis as currently defined contains two cryptic species. This finding is consistent with field observations of differences in pest status and insecticide resistance between L. huidobrensis populations. Until additional studies are complete, no changes in L. huidobrensis taxonomy are proposed. However, researchers and quarantine officials may wish to consider the findings of the current study in designing research, pest management, and quarantine programs for L. huidobrensis.

Psychological states and neuropsychological performances in chronic Lyme disease.

The neuropsychiatric sequelae of chronic Lyme disease remains unclear. This study sought to characterize the psychological status of a group of participants who met criteria for post-Lyme syndrome (PLS). These measures were then used to examine the influence of psychological status on neuropsychological performances. Thirty PLS participants completed a structured psychiatric interview, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, the Lyme Symptom Checklist, and a battery of neuropsychological tests. As a group, the PLS participants did not appear to have an elevated incidence of psychiatric disorders, and psychiatric history was not useful for understanding neuropsychological performances or symptom reports. The mood of the PLS participants was characterized by lowered levels of positive affect (PA) and typical levels of negative affect. This combination can be distinguished from depression and is consistent with previous findings of affect patterns in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome. PA was also linked to both total symptom severity and severity of cognitive complaints, but not to duration of illness, neurological manifestations at initial diagnosis, or treatment history. Relative to published normative data, neuropsychological performances were not in the impaired range on any measure. Neither psychological status nor symptom report were useful for understanding any aspect of cognitive functioning. It is concluded that decreased PA is the most useful marker of psychological functioning in PLS.

Does process-specific slowing account for cognitive deficits in Lyme disease?

Although several studies have suggested that cognitive slowing is a symptom in Lyme disease, it is not clear whether this slowing is general or relates to specific cognitive tasks. This study examined cognitive speed in 25 Lyme disease patients using a mental arithmetic task. These patients showed significant impairments when initiating the cognitive processes involved in counting, but performed as well as healthy participants (n = 23) when the number of counting increments increased. Lyme patients also performed a speeded perceptual-motor matching task as well as healthy participants. Lyme-related initiation speed deficits were significantly correlated with performance on standardized neuropsychological tests, including the Trail Making Test and the Digit Symbol Test, but not with self-reported depression. These results suggest that the cognitive deficits seen on speeded tasks are process specific in the Lyme patient group, and are not the result of generalized slowing.

Studies of linkage in populations. X. Altitude and autosomal gene arrangements in Drosophila robusta.

Data are presented concerning the gene arrangements in the second and third chromosomes of Drosophila robusta in eight altitudinal transects. A consistent change is the increase in the arrangement 2L-3, particularly in the linkage combination 2L-3.2R, with increasing altitude. The reciprocal decrease with increasing altitude affects several different 2-left arrangements, most consistently 2L-1. The arrangements of 2-right show no significant variation with altitude, and those of 3-right do so only in a few samples of the two northern transects studied, none in any of the southern ones. These results confirm previous evidence for the significant role of the arrangements of the left arm of the second chromosome in the adaptations of this species to altitude and suggest further that interactions of linked arrangements are involved in these adaptations. The data also indicate that the factors responsible for the altitudinal adaptations of this species are in many cases not the same ones that are responsible for variations in its gene arrangements with latitude.

Resolution of Heyde's syndrome of aortic stenosis and gastrointestinal bleeding after aortic valve replacement.

The observation by Heyde that unexplained gastrointestinal bleeding may be associated with aortic stenosis has been confirmed by many others. It has been suggested that the combination of gastrointestinal bleeding and aortic stenosis be termed Heyde's syndrome. Gastrointestinal bleeding in this syndrome has been attributed to angiodysplasia. Segmental resection of those portions of the gastrointestinal tract containing the angiodysplastic lesions has been considered the definitive treatment for patients with Heyde's syndrome who are symptomatic because of chronic blood loss. However, recent observations suggest that aortic valve replacement with a bioprosthesis is a better therapeutic approach for those patients with severe aortic stenosis. This treatment has been shown to alleviate the symptomatology of both the stenosed aortic valve and the chronically bleeding bowel.