Associations Between Reductions in Depressive Symptoms and Reductions in Pain and Anxiety Symptoms and Substance Use: Emulation of a Randomized Trial.

Introduction: Depressive symptoms are linked with pain, anxiety, and substance use. Research estimating whether a reduction in depressive symptoms is linked to subsequent reductions in pain and anxiety symptoms and substance use is limited. Methods: Using data from the Veterans Aging Cohort Study, a multisite observational study of U.S. veterans, the authors used a target trial emulation framework to compare individuals with elevated depressive symptoms (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 score ≥ 10) who experienced reductions in depressive symptoms (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 score < 10) with those whose symptoms persisted (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 score ≥ 10) at the next follow-up visit (on average, 1 year later). Using inverse probability of treatment weighting, the authors estimated ORs and 95% CIs for associations between depressive symptom reduction status and improvement on the following: anxiety symptoms, pain symptoms, unhealthy alcohol use, and use of tobacco, cannabis, cocaine, and/or illicit opioids. Results: Reductions in depressive symptoms were associated with reductions in pain symptoms (OR=1.43, 95% CI=1.01, 2.02), anxiety symptoms (OR=2.50, 95% CI=1.63, 3.83), and illicit opioid use (OR=2.07, 95% CI=1.13, 3.81). Depressive symptom reductions were not associated with reductions in unhealthy alcohol use (OR=0.85, 95% CI=0.48, 1.52) or use of tobacco (OR=1.49, 95% CI=0.89, 2.48), cannabis (OR=1.07, 95% CI=0.63, 1.83), or cocaine (OR=1.28, 95% CI=0.73, 2.24). Conclusions: Reducing depressive symptoms may potentially reduce pain and anxiety symptoms and illicit opioid use. Future work should determine whether reductions achieved through antidepressant medications, behavioral therapy, or other means have comparable impact.

Does smoking cessation reduce other substance use, psychiatric symptoms, and pain symptoms? Results from an emulated hypothetical randomized trial of US veterans.

BACKGROUND: Quitting smoking may lead to improvement in substance use, psychiatric symptoms, and pain, especially among high-risk populations who are more likely to experience comorbid conditions. However, causal inferences regarding smoking cessation and its subsequent benefits have been limited. METHODS: We emulated a hypothetical open-label randomized control trial of smoking cessation using longitudinal observational data of HIV-positive and HIV-negative US veterans from 2003-2015 in the Veterans Aging Cohort Study. We followed individuals from the first time they self-reported current cigarette smoking (baseline). We categorized participants as quitters or non-quitters at the first follow-up visit (approximately 1 year after baseline). Using inverse probability weighting to adjust for confounding and selection bias, we estimated odds ratios for improvement of co-occurring conditions (unhealthy alcohol use, cannabis use, illicit opioid use, cocaine use, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and pain symptoms) at second follow-up (approximately 2 years after baseline) for those who quit smoking compared to those who did not, among individuals who had the condition at baseline. RESULTS: Of 4,165 eligible individuals (i.e., current smokers at baseline), 419 reported no current smoking and 2,330 reported current smoking at the first follow-up. Adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for associations between quitting smoking and improvement of each condition at second follow-up were: 2.10 (1.01, 4.35) for unhealthy alcohol use, 1.75 (1.00, 3.06) for cannabis use, 1.10 (0.58, 2.08) for illicit opioid use, and 2.25 (1.20, 4.24) for cocaine use, 0.78 (0.44, 1.38) for depressive symptoms, 0.93 (0.58, 1.49) for anxiety symptoms, and 1.31 (0.84, 2.06) for pain symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: While a causal interpretation of our findings may not be warranted, we found evidence for decreased substance use among veterans who quit cigarette smoking but none for the resolution of psychiatric conditions or pain symptoms. Findings suggest the need for additional resources combined with smoking cessation to reduce psychiatric and pain symptoms for high-risk populations.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Incarceration: The Impact on Sexual Risk-Taking, Sexually Transmitted Infections, and Depression Among Black Sexual Minority Men in HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN) 061.

Black men and people belonging to sexual minority groups are disproportionately impacted by criminal legal involvement and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Traumatic experiences are often associated with later criminal legal involvement, depression symptoms, sexual risk behavior, and STIs. Research on the joint influence of trauma and incarceration on STI risk among racial and/or sexual minority people is limited. This study tested the association between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and incarceration on sexual risk behavior and STI among Black sexual minority men, a population that may be at higher risk for contracting STIs. Using data from the HIV Prevention Trials Network 061 Study, a longitudinal study of adult Black sexual minority men in six U.S. cities (N = 855), we tested associations between past six-month incarceration and subsequent sexual risk behavior, STI, and depression symptoms, for those with and without pre-incarceration PTSD symptoms. PTSD symptoms were elevated among participants who reported Hispanic ethnicity, having sex with both men and women, and previous incarceration. Although there were not significant differences between recent incarceration and sexual risk for those with and without PTSD, incarceration was linked to some sexual risk behaviors regardless of PTSD symptoms. Among people with PTSD symptoms, there was a higher prevalence of sexual risk and depression symptoms, regardless of incarceration. These findings suggest a potentially compounding influence of PTSD symptoms and incarceration on sexual risk and infection among Black sexual minority men.

Reducing overdose deaths among persons with opioid use disorder in connecticut.

BACKGROUND: People in Connecticut are now more likely to die of a drug-related overdose than a traffic accident. While Connecticut has had some success in slowing the rise in overdose death rates, substantial additional progress is necessary. METHODS: We developed, verified, and calibrated a mechanistic simulation of alternative overdose prevention policy options, including scaling up naloxone (NLX) distribution in the community and medications for opioid use disorder (OUD) among people who are incarcerated (MOUD-INC) and in the community (MOUD-COM) in a simulated cohort of people with OUD in Connecticut. We estimated how maximally scaling up each option individually and in combinations would impact 5-year overdose deaths, life-years, and quality-adjusted life-years. All costs were assessed in 2021 USD, employing a health sector perspective in base-case analyses and a societal perspective in sensitivity analyses, using a 3% discount rate and 5-year and lifetime time horizons. RESULTS: Maximally scaling NLX alone reduces overdose deaths 20% in the next 5 years at a favorable incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER); if injectable rather than intranasal NLX was distributed, 240 additional overdose deaths could be prevented. Maximally scaling MOUD-COM and MOUD-INC alone reduce overdose deaths by 14% and 6% respectively at favorable ICERS. Considering all permutations of scaling up policies, scaling NLX and MOUD-COM together is the cost-effective choice, reducing overdose deaths 32% at ICER $19,000/QALY. In sensitivity analyses using a societal perspective, all policy options were cost saving and overdose deaths reduced 33% over 5 years while saving society $338,000 per capita over the simulated cohort lifetime. CONCLUSIONS: Maximally scaling access to naloxone and MOUD in the community can reduce 5-year overdose deaths by 32% among people with OUD in Connecticut under realistic budget scenarios. If societal cost savings due to increased productivity and reduced crime costs are considered, one-third of overdose deaths can be reduced by maximally scaling all three policy options, while saving money.

Police Harassment and Psychiatric, Sexual, and Substance Use Risk Among Black Sexual Minority Men and Black Transgender Women in the HIV Prevention Trials 061 Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Black sexual minority men and Black transgender women (BSMM/BTW) experience disproportionate levels of HIV/STI-related risk factors as well as police harassment (PH). PH is linked to psychiatric risk and could play a role in substance use, sexual risk behavior, and HIV/STI risk. METHODS: We used data from the HIV Prevention Trials Network 061(HPTN 061) study to examine associations between PH and HIV/STI-related outcomes. Using PH exposure measured at baseline and 6-month study visits, we examined an ordinal exposure (PH reported at both visits, PH reported at either visit, versus PH reported at neither baseline nor 6 months) and a binary exposure of persistent PH reported at both visits (yes versus no). We estimate risk ratios (RR) for associations between PH and depression, use of alcohol and methamphetamine, multiple partnerships, condomless sex, and syphilis. RESULTS: Persistent PH (binary) was associated with a 20% or greater increase in the risk of depression (RR, 1.26 (1.07, 1.47)) and multiple partnerships (RR, 1.20 (1.05, 1.39)). There was evidence that ordinal PH was associated with elevated risk of alcohol use (RR, 1.17 (1.00, 1.36)); the point estimate for the association between persistent PH and alcohol use was similar but the imprecision was greater (RR, 1.16 (0.95, 1.42)). CONCLUSION: PH may influence not only mental health but also behavioral risks that contribute to HIV/STI among BSMM/BTW, highlighting the potential wide-ranging and downstream effects of PH on health. Further research is required to confirm associations and elucidate pathways through which PH may influence HIV/STI among BSMM/BTW.

Racial and ethnic inequities in substance use treatment among women with opioid use disorder.

Background: Research describes inequities in substance use treatment, but few studies focus specifically on racial and ethnic disparities in a range of aspects of substance use treatment among women with opioid use disorder (OUD).Objective: To examine whether substance use treatment (i.e. receipt, sources, barriers) differs by race and ethnicity among women with opioid use disorder (OUD) and to identify factors associated with treatment gap (i.e. needing treatment but not receiving it).Methods: We performed cross-sectional analyses using National Survey on Drug Use and Health 2015-2019 data, restricted to non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic White, and Hispanic women with past-year OUD (unweighted n = 1089). We estimated the prevalence of aspects of treatment among racial and ethnic groups, and used modified Poisson regression to estimate correlates of reported treatment gap.Results: Approximately 68% of White versus 87% of Black and 81% of Hispanic women with OUD had a treatment gap (p-value 0.0034). Commonly reported barriers to treatment included prioritization, affordability, and stigma. Older age was associated with lower prevalence of treatment gap among all women [prevalence ratio (PR) = 0.83, and 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.76, 0.92], while criminal legal involvement and healthcare coverage was associated with a lower prevalence of treatment gap among Hispanic and White women only (past year arrest: Hispanic women PR = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.17, 0.86; White women PR = 0.62, 95% CI: 0.47, 0.82).Conclusions: Receipt of treatment is low among women with OUD, especially Black and Hispanic women. Intersectional intervention approaches are needed to increase access and reduce inequities.

Associations Between Incarceration History and Risk of Hypertension and Hyperglycemia: Consideration of Differences among Black, Hispanic, Asian and White Subgroups.

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown that adults with a history of incarceration have elevated cardiovascular (CVD) risk. Research on racial/ethnic group differences in the association between incarceration and CVD risk factors of hypertension and hyperglycemia is limited. OBJECTIVE: To assess racial/ethnic group differences in the association between incarceration and hypertension and hyperglycemia. DESIGN: We performed a secondary data analysis using the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). Using modified Poisson regression, we estimated the associations between lifetime history of incarceration reported during early adulthood with hypertension and hyperglycemia outcomes measured in mid-adulthood, including incident diagnosis. We evaluated whether associations varied by self-reported race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and Asian). PARTICIPANTS: The analytic sample included 4,015 Add Health respondents who self-identified as non-Hispanic White, Non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and Asian, and provided incarceration history and outcome data. MAIN MEASURES: Outcome measures included (1) hypertension (2) systolic blood pressure ≥ 130 mmHg, and (3) hyperglycemia. KEY RESULTS: In non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White participants, there was not evidence of an association between incarceration and measured health outcomes. Among Hispanic participants, incarceration was associated with hyperglycemia (Adjusted Risk Ratio (ARR): 2.1, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.1-3.7), but not with hypertension risk. Incarceration was associated with elevated systolic blood pressure (ARR: 3.1, CI: 1.2-8.5) and hypertension (ARR: 1.7, CI: 1.0-2.8, p = 0.03) among Asian participants, but not with hyperglycemia risk. Incarceration was associated with incident hypertension (ARR 2.5, CI 1.2-5.3) among Asian subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings add to a growing body of evidence suggesting that incarceration may be linked to chronic disease outcomes. Race/ethnic-specific results, while limited by small sample size, highlight the need for long-term studies on incarceration's influence among distinct US groups.

Evaluation of self-directed specimen collection for chlamydia and gonorrhea testing among people who use drugs.

Background: People who use drugs (PWUD) often have elevated sexually transmitted infection (STI) risk and unmet healthcare needs. Self-directed STI specimen collection (i.e., individuals collect the specimen and mail to the laboratory) may be valuable in addressing STI testing barriers among PWUD. Methods: Within a cohort study among PWUD in New York City, we conducted a cross-sectional substudy from November 2021-August 2022 assessing sexual health with a one-time online survey (n = 120); participants could opt-in to receive a self-collection kit. Participants who opted-in were mailed a kit containing collection materials (males: urine cup, females: vaginal swab), pre-paid return label, instructions, and educational information. Specimens were sent to the laboratory and tested for Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC). We measured the number of kits requested, delivered, mailed to the lab, and CT/GC positive; and examined differences in requesting a kit by sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics. Results: Sixty-three total kits were requested by 44 unique participants. Of the 63 requested, 41 were delivered; one kit was undeliverable at the provided address and the rest were not sent due to no address provided or being duplicate requests. Of the 41 kits delivered, three participants returned the kit to the lab; of those, one was positive for CT and GC. The greatest differences in those who did and did not request a kit were observed by age, sexual orientation, past-year sex trade and casual partnerships, and experiences of relationship violence. Conclusions: Self-directed specimen collection may be desirable for PWUD, but research is needed to understand barriers to this testing approach for this population.

Impact of Decarceration Plus Alcohol, Substance Use, and Mental Health Screening on Life Expectancies of Black Sexual Minority Men and Black Transgender Women Living With HIV in the United States: A Simulation Study Based on HPTN 061.

BACKGROUND: Given the disproportionate rates of incarceration and lower life expectancy (LE) among Black sexual minority men (BSMM) and Black transgender women (BTW) with HIV, we modeled the impact of decarceration and screening for psychiatric conditions and substance use on LE of US BSMM/BTW with HIV. METHODS: We augmented a microsimulation model previously validated to predict LE and leading causes of death in the US with estimates from the HPTN 061 cohort and the Veteran's Aging Cohort Studies. We estimated independent associations among psychiatric and substance use disorders, to simulate the influence of treatment of one condition on improvement on others. We used this augmented simulation to estimate LE for BSMM/BTW with HIV with a history of incarceration under alternative policies of decarceration (ie, reducing the fraction exposed to incarceration), screening for psychiatric conditions and substance use, or both. RESULTS: Baseline LE was 61.3 years. Reducing incarceration by 25%, 33%, 50%, and 100% increased LE by 0.29, 0.31, 0.53, and 1.08 years, respectively, versus no reductions in incarceration. When reducing incarceration by 33% and implementing screening for alcohol, tobacco, substance use, and depression, in which a positive screen triggers diagnostic assessment for all psychiatric and substance use conditions and linkage to treatment, LE increased by 1.52 years compared with no screening or decarceration. DISCUSSION: LE among BSMM/BTW with HIV is short compared with other people with HIV. Reducing incarceration and improving screening and treatment of psychiatric conditions and substance use could substantially increase LE in this population.

Age Differences in the Associations Between Incarceration and Subsequent Substance Use, Sexual Risk-Taking, and Incident STI Among Black Sexual Minority Men and Black Transgender Women in the HIV Prevention Trials 061 Cohort.

Incarceration can lead to different risk behaviors often due to increased distress and disruption of social networks. It is not well known, however, how these associations may differ by age. In this study, we measure age differences in longitudinal associations between incarceration and substance use, sex risk, and sexually transmitted infection (STI) among Black sexual minority men and Black transgender women (BSMM/BTW). We recruited BSMM/BTW from 2009 to 2011 that were part of the HIV Prevention Trials Network 061 study. We compared those less than 30 years old (n = 375) to those 30 years old or greater (n = 794) examining substance use, sex risk, and STI infection stratified by age. Logistic regression with inverse probability weighting was used for the statistical analysis. Approximately 59% of the sample reported incarceration history. In adjusted analysis, incarceration was more strongly associated with alcohol use and stimulant use among older individuals as was sexual risk behaviors including buying and selling sex. Concurrent partnerships were associated with the younger age groups. STI incidence was associated with younger individuals while associations with HIV infection were similar for the two age groups. Understanding differences in substance use and STI risk among age cohorts is imperative to the design and implementation of re-entry programs. Younger BSMM/BTW participating in re-entry support programs may benefit in particular from HIV/STI prevention and care efforts, while post-release substance abuse treatment and harm reduction programs should target older individuals with continued substance abuse.

Associations between police harassment and distrust in and reduced access to healthcare among Black sexual minority men: A longitudinal analysis of HPTN 061.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate associations between racialized and homophobia-based police harassment (RHBPH) and healthcare distrust and utilization among Black Sexual Minority Men (BSMM). METHODS: We utilized data from a longitudinal cohort study from HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN) 061 with baseline, six and 12 month follow-up assessments. Using multivariable analysis, we evaluated associations between RHBPH and healthcare distrust and utilization reported at the 6 and 12 month visits. RESULTS: Of 1553 BSMM present at baseline, 1160 were available at six-month follow-up. In multivariable analysis, increasing frequency of RHBPH was associated with increasing levels of distrust in healthcare providers (aOR 1.31, 95% CI: 1.00, 1.74) and missing 50% or more of healthcare visits at six-month follow-up (aOR 1.93, 95% CI: 1.09, 3.43). CONCLUSIONS: Recent experiences of RHBPH are associated with reduced trust in and access to healthcare among BSMM, with more frequent RHBPH associated with greater vulnerability.

Mediation of the Effect of Incarceration on Selling Sex Among Black Sexual Minority Men and Black Transgender Women in the HPTN 061 Study.

Incarceration among Black sexual minority men and Black transgender women (BSMM/BTW) is disproportionately high in the United States. Limited research has documented the disruptive effect of incarceration on sexual networks and sexual partnership exchange among BSMM/BTW. We estimate the influence of incarceration on selling sex and mediating pathways among 1169 BSMM/BTW enrolled in the HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN) 061 cohort to assess this relationship. Mediators investigated were social support, violence, illicit drug use, and distress due to experienced racism and homophobia. During the 6 months following baseline, 14% of the cohort was incarcerated, including 24% of BTW. After adjustment, recent incarceration was associated with 1.57 (95% CI 1.02, 2.42) times the risk of subsequently selling sex. The hypothesized mediators together explained 25% of the relationship, with an indirect effect risk ratio of 1.09 (95% CI 0.97, 1.24). Our results document an association and call for more research investigating mechanisms.

Potential health benefits of integrated screening strategies for alcohol, tobacco, other substance use, depression, anxiety, and chronic pain among people living with HIV in the USA: a mathematical modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use, tobacco use, and other substance use often co-occur with depression, anxiety, and chronic pain, forming a constellation of alcohol, substance, and mood-related (CASM) conditions that disproportionately affects people with HIV in the USA. We used a microsimulation model to evaluate how alternative screening strategies accounting for CASM interdependence could affect life expectancy in people with HIV in the USA. METHODS: We augmented a microsimulation model previously validated to predict US adult life expectancy, including in people with HIV. Using data from the Veterans Aging Cohort Study, we incorporated CASM co-occurrence, inferred causal relationships between CASM conditions, and assessed the effects of CASM on HIV treatment and preventive care. We simulated an in-care HIV cohort exposed to alternative CASM screening and diagnostic assessment strategies, ranging from currently recommended screenings (alcohol, tobacco, and depression, with diagnostic assessments for conditions screening positive) to a series of integrated strategies (screening for alcohol, tobacco, or depression with additional diagnostic assessments if any screened positive) to a maximal saturation strategy (diagnostic assessments for all CASM conditions). FINDINGS: The saturation strategy increased life expectancy by 0·95 years (95% CI 0·93-0·98) compared with no screening. Recommended screenings provided much less benefit: 0·06 years (0·03-0·09) gained from alcohol screening, 0·08 years (0·06-0·11) from tobacco screening, 0·10 years (0·08-0·11) from depression screening, and 0·25 years (0·22-0·27) from all three screenings together. One integrated strategy (screening alcohol, tobacco, and depression with diagnostic assessment for all CASM conditions if any screened positive) produced near-maximal benefit (0·82 years [0·80-0·84]) without adding substantial screening burden, albeit requiring additional diagnostic assessments. INTERPRETATION: Primary care providers for people with HIV should consider comprehensive diagnostic assessment of CASM conditions if one or more conditions screen positive. FUNDING: US National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

Does the Association Between Stimulant use and High Risk Sexual Behavior Vary by Injection Drug Use, Sexual Minority Status, or HIV Infection Status? A Meta-analysis.

There is strong evidence linking stimulant use, namely methamphetamine use, to sexual risk behavior among sexual minority men (SMM); we do not, however, have a good understanding of this relationship among other at-risk populations. In this study, we systematically reviewed associations between stimulant use (i.e., methamphetamine, crack cocaine, cocaine) and sexual risk behaviors among populations facing elevated risk of HIV transmission and acquisition (i.e., SMM, people who inject drugs (PWID), and people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWH)). Random-effects meta-analyses and sensitivity analyses that included crude and adjusted estimates separately were conducted to evaluate the impact of potential confounding variables. The results showed strong relationships between stimulant use and condomless sex, transactional sex, and multiple sexual partners. Results were broadly consistent when analyses were stratified by type of stimulant (methamphetamine, crack cocaine, and other stimulants) and risk group. Sensitivity analyses with confounding variables did not greatly impact results. The results indicate that stimulant use is associated with numerous sexual risk behaviors regardless of risk group, suggesting prevention efforts focused on reducing methamphetamine-related HIV risk should target a range of at-risk populations.

Racial/ethnic disparities in opioid overdose prevention: comparison of the naloxone care cascade in White, Latinx, and Black people who use opioids in New York City.

BACKGROUND: Drug overdose mortality is rising precipitously among Black people who use drugs. In NYC, the overdose mortality rate is now highest in Black (38.2 per 100,000) followed by the Latinx (33.6 per 100,000) and white (32.7 per 100,000) residents. Improved understanding of access to harm reduction including naloxone across racial/ethnic groups is warranted. METHODS: Using data from an ongoing study of people who use illicit opioids in NYC (N = 575), we quantified racial/ethnic differences in the naloxone care cascade. RESULTS: We observed gaps across the cascade overall in the cohort, including in naloxone training (66%), current possession (53%) daily access during using and non-using days (21%), 100% access during opioid use (20%), and complete protection (having naloxone and someone who could administer it present during 100% of opioid use events; 12%). Naloxone coverage was greater in white (training: 79%, possession: 62%, daily access: 33%, access during use: 27%, and complete protection: 13%, respectively) and Latinx (training: 67%, possession: 54%, daily access: 22%, access during use: 24%, and complete protection: 16%, respectively) versus Black (training: 59%, possession: 48%, daily access:13%, access during use: 12%, and complete protection: 8%, respectively) participants. Black participants, versus white participants, had disproportionately low odds of naloxone training (OR 0.40, 95% CI 0.22-0.72). Among participants aged 51 years or older, Black race (versus white, the referent) was strongly associated with lower levels of being trained in naloxone use (OR 0.20, 95% CI 0.07-0.63) and having 100% naloxone access during use (OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.13-0.91). Compared to white women, Black women had 0.27 times the odds of being trained in naloxone use (95% CI 0.10-0.72). CONCLUSIONS: There is insufficient protection by naloxone during opioid use, with disproportionately low access among Black people who use drugs, and a heightened disparity among older Black people and Black women.

Cessation of self-reported opioid use and impacts on co-occurring health conditions.

BACKGROUND: Among veterans in care reporting opioid use, we investigated the association between ceasing opioid use on subsequent reduction in report of other substance use and improvements in pain, anxiety, and depression. METHODS: Using Veterans Aging Cohort Study survey data collected between 2003 and 2012, we emulated a hypothetical randomized trial (target trial) of ceasing self-reported use of prescription opioids and/or heroin, and outcomes including unhealthy alcohol use, smoking, cannabis use, cocaine use, pain, and anxiety and depressive symptoms. Among those with baseline opioid use, we compared participants who stopped reporting opioid use at the first follow-up (approximately 1 year after baseline) with those who did not. We fit logistic regression models to estimate associations with change in each outcome at the second follow-up (approximately 2 years after baseline) among participants with that condition at baseline. We examined two sets of adjusted models that varied temporality assumptions. RESULTS: Among 2473 participants reporting opioid use, 872 did not report use, 606 reported use, and 995 were missing data on use at the first follow-up. Ceasing opioid use was associated with no longer reporting cannabis (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.82, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.10, 3.03) and cocaine use (AOR=1.93, 95% CI 1.16, 3.20), and improvements in pain (AOR=1.53, 95% CI 1.05, 2.24) and anxiety (AOR=1.56, 95% CI 1.01, 2.41) symptoms. CONCLUSION: Cessation of opioid misuse may be associated with subsequent cessation of other substances and reduction in pain and anxiety symptoms, which supports efforts to screen and provide evidence-based intervention where appropriate.

Incarceration, Social Support Networks, and Health among Black Sexual Minority Men and Transgender Women: Evidence from the HPTN 061 Study.

Support from social networks buffers against negative effects of stress but is disrupted by incarceration. Few studies examine incarceration, social support networks, and health among Black sexual minority men (BSMM) and Black transgender women (BTW). We conducted a secondary analysis using HIV Prevention Trials Network 061 (HPTN 061), a sample of BSMM/BTW recruited from six US cities. We measured associations between recent incarceration reported at six months follow-up and social support networks at twelve months follow-up, and cross-sectional associations between support networks and twelve-month health outcomes (e.g., sexual partnerships, substance use, healthcare access and depressive symptoms). Among the analytic sample (N = 1169), recent incarceration was associated with small medical support networks (adjusted risk ratio [aRR] 1.16, 95% CI 1.01, 1.34) and small financial support networks (aRR 1.18, 95% CI 1.04, 1.35). Support networks were associated with multiple partnerships (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] 0.77, 95% CI 0.65, 0.90), unhealthy alcohol use (aPR 1.20, 95% CI 0.96, 1.51), and depressive symptoms (aPR 1.16, 95% CI 0.99, 1.36). Incarceration adversely impacts social support networks of BSMM/BTW, and support networks were associated with a range of important health outcomes.

Parenting and childcare responsibilities, harm reduction service engagement, and opioid overdose among women and men who use illicit opioids in New York City.

Background: Little is known regarding relationships among parenting, engagement in harm reduction services, and overdose risk among people who use illicit opioids (PWUIO), and whether associations differ by gender. Methods: Using baseline data from an ongoing study among PWUIO in New York City (n = 575), we measured childcare factors (i.e., residing with children, avoidance of drug treatment for fear of child welfare, difficulty accessing harm reduction due to childcare issues), and harm reduction services and overdose-related outcomes. Among those with children, we estimated prevalence ratios (PR) using modified Poisson regression with a product-interaction term for gender differences. Results: In the total sample (n = 575), approximately 70% reported having children. Compared to men, women were more likely to reside with children (25% vs 36%; p-value = 0.04), avoid treatment for fear of child welfare (16% vs 26%; p-value = 0.04), and less likely to be trained in naloxone administration (68% vs 61%; p-value = 0.09). Among participants with children (n = 403), residing with children was associated with naloxone training among men (aPR 1.28, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.62). Avoiding treatment for fear of child welfare was associated with carrying naloxone overall (aPR 0.68, 95% CI: 0.46, 0.99), with a stronger association among women (aPR 0.48, 95% CI: 0.26, 0.92). Difficulty accessing services due to childcare was associated with lifetime overdose (aPR 1.53, 95% CI: 1.05, 2.23). Conclusion: Childcare responsibilities may be a barrier for accessing substance use services and treatment for men and women. Further qualitative and mixed-methods research is needed to understand how to make treatment and services accessible for parents.

Incarceration and Sexual Risk Behavior and Incident Sexually Transmitted Infection/HIV in HIV Prevention Trials Network 061: Differences by Study City and Among Black Sexual Minority Men Who Have Sex With Men, Black Sexual Minority Men Who Have Sex With Men and Women, and Black Transgender Women.

BACKGROUND: Black sexual minority men (BSMM) and Black transgender women face a disproportionate risk of incarceration and sexually transmitted infection (STI)/HIV, yet research on the longitudinal association between incarceration and STI/HIV risk in these groups is limited. METHODS: We used data from the HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN) 061 study conducted among BSMM and Black transgender women in Atlanta, Boston, Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco, and Washington, DC, restricting analyses to those who returned for the 6-month follow-up visit when recent incarceration was measured (n = 1169). Using inverse probability of treatment weighting, we measured associations between incarceration and next 6-month multiple partnerships; selling or buying sex; condomless anal intercourse; and incident chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV. We explored differences by study city, and among BSMM who had sex with men only, BSMM who had sex with men and women, and Black transgender women. RESULTS: Approximately 14% reported past 6-month incarceration. Incarceration was associated with next 6-month selling sex (adjusted risk ratio [ARR], 1.80; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.12-2.87) in the overall sample and multiple partnerships among BSMM who had sex with men and women (ARR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.10-1.63) and transgender women (ARR, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.22-2.57). There is evidence suggesting that incarceration may predict gonorrhea (ARR, 2.35; 95% CI, 0.95-5.77), with particularly strong associations observed in Los Angeles (ARR, 6.48; 95% CI, 1.48-28.38). CONCLUSIONS: Incarceration may increase STI/HIV risk among BSMM and Black transgender women. Additional mixed-methods research is needed to validate associations and understand pathways.

Miscarriage and Abortion Among Women Attending Harm Reduction Services in Philadelphia: Correlations With Individual, Interpersonal, and Structural Factors.

Background: Reproductive health research among women who use drugs has focused on pregnancy prevention and perinatal/neonatal outcomes, but there have been few investigations of miscarriage and abortion, including prevalence and associated factors. Methods: Using cross-sectional data from a sample of non-pregnant women receiving harm reduction services in Philadelphia in 2016-2017 we examined lifetime miscarriage and abortion (n = 187). Separately for both outcomes, we used modified Poisson regression to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for associations with each correlate. We also explored correlates of reporting both miscarriage and abortion. Results: Approximately 47% experienced miscarriage, 42% experienced abortion, and 18% experienced both. Miscarriage correlates included: prescription opioid misuse (e.g., OxyContin PR 1.82, 95% CI 1.23, 2.69); 40% increase in prevalence associated with housing instability, 50% increase with survival sex, and two-fold increase with arrest. Abortion correlates included: mental health (e.g., depression PR 2.09, 95% CI 1.18, 3.71), stimulant use (e.g., methamphetamine PR 1.83, 95% CI 1.22, 2.74), and drug injection (PR 1.76, 95% CI 1.03, 3.02); partner controlling access to people/possessions, physical and emotional violence; and a two-fold increase associated with survival sex and arrest. Experiencing both reproductive outcomes was correlated with mental health, opioid and simulant use, housing instability, survival sex, and arrest. Conclusion: Miscarriage and abortion was common among women with history of drug misuse suggesting a need for expanded access to family planning, medication-assisted therapy, and social support services, and for the integration of these with substance use services. Future research in longitudinal data is needed.