Compulsive Repetitive Flexion With Breath-Holding in Sagging Brain Syndrome.

Background and Objective: Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) from CSF leak commonly produces headache. It also may produce sagging brain syndrome (SBS), often with neurocognitive symptoms indistinguishable from behavioral-variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD). The authors describe a new clinical sign that appears to be pathognomonic of SBS. Methods: We reviewed medical records and brain imaging in patients seen at our 2 centers who presented with SIH, SBS, and bvFTD symptoms. Results: There were 51 patients (12 women, 39 men) with mean age 55.5 years (range, 26-70 years). MRI showed severe brain sagging in all. Thirteen patients displayed repetitive flexion with breath-holding at the time of clinical presentation. Five patients had repetitive flexion with breath-holding, which resolved before presenting for evaluation. Thus, 35.3% (18) of 51 patients with SBS displayed seemingly compulsive repetitive flexion with breath-holding. Discussion: Compulsive repetitive flexion with breath-holding appears to be pathognomonic of SBS, deserving the acronym CoRFBiS (compulsive repetitive flexion with breath-holding in SBS). CoRFBiS should alert the clinician to SBS with SIH as the proximate cause of the clinical constellation, rather than bvFTD.

Development and Validation of SCACOMS, a Composite Scale for Assessing Disease Progression and Treatment Effects in Spinocerebellar Ataxia.

Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA) are rare inherited neurodegenerative disorders characterized by a progressive impairment of gait, balance, limb coordination, and speech. There is currently no composite scale that includes multiple aspects of the SCA experience to assess disease progression and treatment effects. Applying the method of partial least squares (PLS) regression, we developed the Spinocerebellar Ataxia Composite Scale (SCACOMS) from two SCA natural history datasets (NCT01060371, NCT02440763). PLS regression selected items based on their ability to detect clinical decline, with optimized weights based on the item's degree of progression. Following model validation, SCACOMS was leveraged to examine disease progression and treatment effects in a 48-week SCA clinical trial cohort (NCT03701399). Items from the Clinical Global Impression-Global Improvement Scale (CGI-I), the Friedreich Ataxia Rating Scale (FARS) - functional stage, and the Modified Functional Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (f-SARA) were objectively selected with weightings based on their sensitivity to clinical decline. The resulting SCACOMS exhibited improved sensitivity to disease progression and greater treatment effects (compared to the original scales from which they were derived) in a 48-week clinical trial of a novel therapeutic agent. The trial analyses also provided a SCACOMS-derived estimate of the temporal delay in SCA disease progression. SCACOMS is a useful composite measure, effectively capturing disease progression and highlighting treatment effects in patients with SCA. SCACOMS will be a powerful tool in future studies given its sensitivity to clinical decline and ability to detect a meaningful clinical impact of disease-modifying treatments.

Content Validity of the Modified Functional Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (f-SARA) Instrument in Spinocerebellar Ataxia.

The functional Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (f-SARA) assesses Gait, Stance, Sitting, and Speech. It was developed as a potentially clinically meaningful measure of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) progression for clinical trial use. Here, we evaluated content validity of the f-SARA. Qualitative interviews were conducted among individuals with SCA1 (n = 1) and SCA3 (n = 6) and healthcare professionals (HCPs) with SCA expertise (USA, n = 5; Europe, n = 3). Interviews evaluated symptoms and signs of SCA and relevance of f-SARA concepts for SCA. HCP cognitive debriefing was conducted. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, coded, and analyzed by ATLAS.TI software. Individuals with SCA1 and 3 reported 85 symptoms, signs, and impacts of SCA. All indicated difficulties with walking, stance, balance, speech, fatigue, emotions, and work. All individuals with SCA1 and 3 considered Gait, Stance, and Speech relevant f-SARA concepts; 3 considered Sitting relevant (42.9%). All HCPs considered Gait and Speech relevant; 5 (62.5%) indicated Stance was relevant. Sitting was considered a late-stage disease indicator. Most HCPs suggested inclusion of appendicular items would enhance clinical relevance. Cognitive debriefing supported clarity and comprehension of f-SARA. Maintaining current abilities on f-SARA items for 1 year was considered meaningful for most individuals with SCA1 and 3. All HCPs considered meaningful changes as stability in f-SARA score over 1-2 years, 1-2-point change in total f-SARA score, and deviation from natural history. These results support content validity of f-SARA for assessing SCA disease progression in clinical trials.

Promoting Growth in Behavioral Neurology: A Path Forward.

Behavioral neurology & neuropsychiatry (BNNP) is a field that seeks to understand brain-behavior relationships, including fundamental brain organization principles and the many ways that brain structures and connectivity can be disrupted, leading to abnormalities of behavior, cognition, emotion, perception, and social cognition. In North America, BNNP has existed as an integrated subspecialty through the United Council for Neurologic Subspecialties since 2006. Nonetheless, the number of behavioral neurologists across academic medical centers and community settings is not keeping pace with increasing clinical and research demand. In this commentary, we provide a brief history of BNNP followed by an outline of the current challenges and opportunities for BNNP from the behavioral neurologist's perspective across clinical, research, and educational spheres. We provide a practical guide for promoting BNNP and addressing the shortage of behavioral neurologists to facilitate the continued growth and development of the subspecialty. We also urge a greater commitment to recruit trainees from diverse backgrounds so as to dismantle persistent obstacles that hinder inclusivity in BNNP-efforts that will further enhance the growth and impact of the subspecialty. With rapidly expanding diagnostic and therapeutic approaches across a range of conditions at the intersection of neurology and psychiatry, BNNP is well positioned to attract new trainees and expand its reach across clinical, research, and educational activities.

Proceedings of the first global meeting of the Posterior Fossa Society: state of the art in cerebellar mutism syndrome.

PURPOSE: The Posterior Fossa Society, an international multidisciplinary group, hosted its first global meeting designed to share the current state of the evidence across the multidisciplinary elements of pediatric post-operative cerebellar mutism syndrome (pCMS). The agenda included keynote talks from world-leading speakers, compelling abstract presentations and engaging discussions led by members of the PFS special interest groups. METHODS: This paper is a synopsis of the first global meeting, a 3-day program held in Liverpool, England, UK, in September 2022. RESULTS: Topics included nosology, patient and family experience, cerebellar modulation of cognition, and cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. In addition, updates from large-scale studies were shared as well as abstracts across neuroradiology, neurosurgery, diagnosis/scoring, ataxia, and rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS: Based on data-driven evidence and discussions, each special interest group created research priorities to target before the second global meeting, in the spring of 2024.

Hungarian adaptation of the cerebellar cognitive affective/Schmahmann Syndrome Scale.

Recent studies have reported that cerebellar lesions can cause cognitive, behavioral, and affective symptoms. This constellation is called the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome (CCAS). A bedside instrument, the CCAS-Scale, has been developed to screen for this clinical presentation. The aim of this study is to adapt the CCAS-Scale to Hungarian according to international cross-cultural guidelines. In cooperation with the senior author of the original CCAS-Scale, we defined a five-step adaptation protocol (license number 6758-1/2021). Step 1: translation of the scale from English to Hungarian by two separate teams. Step 2: comparison of the two translated versions, synthesis (preliminary version). Step 3: back translation by an independent professional translator. Step 4: authorization, revision, and correction. Step 5: pre-testing the scale, measuring the test times. Following our protocol, we produced the CCAS-H and the instructions booklet. We pre-tested healthy (n = 10) and cerebellar stroke patients (n = 10) and finalized the scale. Although not significantly, but cerebellar patients reached lower raw scores compared with healthy subjects. Testing times differed significantly between the two groups. A meticulous validation protocol was outlined to assess the validity and reliability of the newly adapted test. CCAS-H is a quick and adequate scale to examine the cerebellar-cognitive affective syndrome, which will be available for Hungarian professionals. Our main challenge was to define the stimuli and cues with adequate psycholinguistic and psychometric properties. As a next step, we are gathering data for the validation with the help of six other Hungarian Neurology departments.

Standing Balance Conditions and Digital Sway Measures for Clinical Trials of Friedreich's Ataxia.

BACKGROUND: Progressive loss of standing balance is a feature of Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA). OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to identify standing balance conditions and digital postural sway measures that best discriminate between FRDA and healthy controls (HC). We assessed test-retest reliability and correlations between sway measures and clinical scores. METHODS: Twenty-eight subjects with FRDA and 20 HC completed six standing conditions: feet apart, feet together, and feet tandem, both with eyes opened (EO) and eyes closed. Sway was measured using a wearable sensor on the lumbar spine for 30 seconds. Test completion rate, test-retest reliability with intraclass correlation coefficients, and areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves (AUCs) for each measure were compared to identify distinguishable FRDA sway characteristics from HC. Pearson correlations were used to evaluate the relationships between discriminative measures and clinical scores. RESULTS: Three of the six standing conditions had completion rates over 70%. Of these three conditions, natural stance and feet together with EO showed the greatest completion rates. All six of the sway measures' mean values were significantly different between FRDA and HC. Four of these six measures discriminated between groups with >0.9 AUC in all three conditions. The Friedreich Ataxia Rating Scale Upright Stability and Total scores correlated with sway measures with P-values <0.05 and r-values (0.63-0.86) and (0.65-0.81), respectively. CONCLUSION: Digital postural sway measures using wearable sensors are discriminative and reliable for assessing standing balance in individuals with FRDA. Natural stance and feet together stance with EO conditions suggest use in clinical trials for FRDA. © 2024 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Digital Measures of Postural Sway Quantify Balance Deficits in Spinocerebellar Ataxia.

BACKGROUND: Maintaining balance is crucial for independence and quality of life. Loss of balance is a hallmark of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA). OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to identify which standing balance conditions and digital measures of body sway were most discriminative, reliable, and valid for quantifying balance in SCA. METHODS: Fifty-three people with SCA (13 SCA1, 13 SCA2, 14 SCA3, and 13 SCA6) and Scale for Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA) scores 9.28 ± 4.36 and 31 healthy controls were recruited. Subjects stood in six test conditions (natural stance, feet together and tandem, each with eyes open [EO] and eyes closed [EC]) with an inertial sensor on their lower back for 30 seconds (×2). We compared test completion rate, test-retest reliability, and areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) for seven digital sway measures. Pearson's correlations related sway with the SARA and the Patient-Reported Outcome Measure of Ataxia (PROM ataxia). RESULTS: Most individuals with SCA (85%-100%) could stand for 30 seconds with natural stance EO or EC, and with feet together EO. The most discriminative digital sway measures (path length, range, area, and root mean square) from the two most reliable and discriminative conditions (natural stance EC and feet together EO) showed intraclass correlation coefficients from 0.70 to 0.91 and AUCs from 0.83 to 0.93. Correlations of sway with SARA were significant (maximum r = 0.65 and 0.73). Correlations with PROM ataxia were mild to moderate (maximum r = 0.56 and 0.34). CONCLUSION: Inertial sensor measures of extent of postural sway in conditions of natural stance EC and feet together stance EO were discriminative, reliable, and valid for monitoring SCA. © 2024 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Fatigue Impacts Quality of Life in People with Spinocerebellar Ataxias.

BACKGROUND: Fatigue is a prevalent and debilitating symptom in neurological disorders, including spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs). However, the risk factors of fatigue in the SCAs as well as its impact have not been well investigated. OBJECTIVES: To study the prevalence of fatigue in SCAs, the factors contributing to fatigue, and the influence of fatigue on quality of life. METHODS: Fatigue was assessed in 418 participants with SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, and SCA6 from the Clinical Research Consortium for the Study of Cerebellar Ataxia using the Fatigue Severity Scale. We conducted multi-variable linear regression models to examine the factors contributing to fatigue as well as the association between fatigue and quality of life. RESULTS: Fatigue was most prevalent in SCA3 (52.6%), followed by SCA1 (36.7%), SCA6 (35.7%), and SCA2 (35.6%). SCA cases with fatigue had more severe ataxia and worse depressive symptoms. In SCA3, those with fatigue had a longer disease duration and longer pathological CAG repeat numbers. In multi-variable models, depressive symptoms, but not ataxia severity, were associated with more severe fatigue. Fatigue, independent of ataxia and depression, contributed to worse quality of life in SCA3 and SCA6 at baseline, and fatigue continued affecting quality of life throughout the disease course in all types of SCA. CONCLUSIONS: Fatigue is a common symptom in SCAs and is closely related to depression. Fatigue significantly impacts patients' quality of life. Therefore, screening for fatigue should be considered a part of standard clinical care for SCAs.

Rates of change of pons and middle cerebellar peduncle diameters are diagnostic of multiple system atrophy of the cerebellar type.

Definitive diagnosis of multiple system atrophy of the cerebellar type (MSA-C) is challenging. We hypothesized that rates of change of pons and middle cerebellar peduncle diameters on MRI would be unique to MSA-C and serve as diagnostic biomarkers. We defined the normative data for anterior-posterior pons and transverse middle cerebellar peduncle diameters on brain MRI in healthy controls, performed diameter-volume correlations and measured intra- and inter-rater reliability. We studied an Exploratory cohort (2002-2014) of 88 MSA-C and 78 other cerebellar ataxia patients, and a Validation cohort (2015-2021) of 49 MSA-C, 13 multiple system atrophy of the parkinsonian type (MSA-P), 99 other cerebellar ataxia patients and 314 non-ataxia patients. We measured anterior-posterior pons and middle cerebellar peduncle diameters on baseline and subsequent MRIs, and correlated results with Brief Ataxia Rating Scale scores. We assessed midbrain:pons and middle cerebellar peduncle:pons ratios over time. The normative anterior-posterior pons diameter was 23.6 ± 1.6 mm, and middle cerebellar peduncle diameter 16.4 ± 1.4 mm. Pons diameter correlated with volume, r = 0.94, P < 0.0001. The anterior-posterior pons and middle cerebellar peduncle measures were smaller at first scan in MSA-C compared to all other ataxias; anterior-posterior pons diameter: Exploratory, 19.3 ± 2.6 mm versus 20.7 ± 2.6 mm, Validation, 19.9 ± 2.1 mm versus 21.1 ± 2.1 mm; middle cerebellar peduncle transverse diameter, Exploratory, 12.0 ± 2.6 mm versus 14.3 ±2.1 mm, Validation, 13.6 ± 2.1 mm versus 15.1 ± 1.8 mm, all P < 0.001. The anterior-posterior pons and middle cerebellar peduncle rates of change were faster in MSA-C than in all other ataxias; anterior-posterior pons diameter rates of change: Exploratory, -0.87 ± 0.04 mm/year versus -0.09 ± 0.02 mm/year, Validation, -0.89 ± 0.48 mm/year versus -0.10 ± 0.21 mm/year; middle cerebellar peduncle transverse diameter rates of change: Exploratory, -0.84 ± 0.05 mm/year versus -0.08 ± 0.02 mm/year, Validation, -0.94 ± 0.64 mm/year versus -0.11 ± 0.27 mm/year, all values P < 0.0001. Anterior-posterior pons and middle cerebellar peduncle diameters were indistinguishable between Possible, Probable and Definite MSA-C. The rate of anterior-posterior pons atrophy was linear, correlating with ataxia severity. Using a lower threshold anterior-posterior pons diameter decrease of -0.4 mm/year to balance sensitivity and specificity, area under the curve analysis discriminating MSA-C from other ataxias was 0.94, yielding sensitivity 0.92 and specificity 0.87. For the middle cerebellar peduncle, with threshold decline -0.5 mm/year, area under the curve was 0.90 yielding sensitivity 0.85 and specificity 0.79. The midbrain:pons ratio increased progressively in MSA-C, whereas the middle cerebellar peduncle:pons ratio was almost unchanged. Anterior-posterior pons and middle cerebellar peduncle diameters were smaller in MSA-C than in MSA-P, P < 0.001. We conclude from this 20-year longitudinal clinical and imaging study that anterior-posterior pons and middle cerebellar peduncle diameters are phenotypic imaging biomarkers of MSA-C. In the correct clinical context, an anterior-posterior pons and transverse middle cerebellar peduncle diameter decline of ∼0.8 mm/year is sufficient for and diagnostic of MSA-C.

Early-Life Social Determinants of SCA6 Age at Onset, Severity, and Progression.

SCA6 patients with the same size CAG repeat allele can vary significantly in age at onset (AAO) and clinical progression. The specific external factors affecting SCA6 have yet to be investigated. We assessed the effect of early life events on AAO, severity, and progression in SCA6 patients using a social determinant of health approach. We performed a survey of biological and social factors in SCA6 patients enrolled in the SCA6 Network at the University of Chicago. AAO of ataxia symptoms and patient-reported outcome measure (PROM) of ataxia were used as primary outcome measures. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operation (LASSO) regressions were used to identify which early life factors are predictive of SCA6 AAO, severity, and progression. Multiple linear regression models were then used to assess the degree to which these determinants influence SCA6 health outcomes. A total of 105 participants with genetically confirmed SCA6 completed the assessments. SCA6 participants with maternal difficulty during pregnancy, active participation in school sports, and/or longer CAG repeats were determined to have earlier AAO. We found a 13.44-year earlier AAO for those with maternal difficulty in pregnancy than those without (p = 0.008) and a 12.31-year earlier AAO for those active in school sports than those who were not (p < 0.001). Higher education attainment was associated with decreased SCA6 severity and slower progression. Early life biological and social factors can have a strong influence on the SCA6 disease course, indicating that non-genetic factors can contribute significantly to SCA6 health outcomes.

Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Disease Presenting as Late-Onset Slowly Progressive Spinocerebellar Ataxia, and Comparative Case Series with Neuropathology.

BACKGROUND: Genetic prion diseases, including Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker disease (GSS), are extremely rare, fatal neurodegenerative disorders, often associated with progressive ataxia and cognitive/neuropsychiatric symptoms. GSS typically presents as a rapidly progressive cerebellar ataxia, associated with cognitive decline. Late-onset cases are rare. OBJECTIVE: To compare a novel GSS phenotype with six other cases and present pathological findings from a single case. METHODS: Case series of seven GSS patients, one proceeding to autopsy. RESULTS: Case 1 developed slowly progressive gait difficulties at age 71, mimicking a spinocerebellar ataxia, with a family history of balance problems in old age. Genome sequencing revealed a heterozygous c.392G > A (p.G131E) pathogenic variant and a c.395A > G resulting in p.129 M/V polymorphism in the PRNP gene. Probability analyses considering family history, phenotype, and a similar previously reported point mutation (p.G131V) suggest p.G131E as a new pathogenic variant. Clinical features and imaging of this case are compared with those six additional cases harboring p.P102L mutations. Autopsy findings of a case are described and were consistent with the prion pathology of GSS. CONCLUSIONS: We describe a patient with GSS with a novel p.G131E mutation in the PRNP gene, presenting with a late-onset, slowly progressive phenotype, mimicking a spinocerebellar ataxia, and six additional cases with the typical P102L mutation.

The Cerebellar Cognitive Affective/Schmahmann Syndrome Scale in Spinocerebellar Ataxias.

The Cerebellar Cognitive Affective/Schmahmann Syndrome (CCAS) manifests as impaired executive control, linguistic processing, visual spatial function, and affect regulation. The CCAS has been described in the spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs), but its prevalence is unknown. We analyzed results of the CCAS/Schmahmann Scale (CCAS-S), developed to detect and quantify CCAS, in two natural history studies of 309 individuals Symptomatic for SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, SCA6, SCA7, or SCA8, 26 individuals Pre-symptomatic for SCA1 or SCA3, and 37 Controls. We compared total raw scores, domain scores, and total fail scores between Symptomatic, Pre-symptomatic, and Control cohorts, and between SCA types. We calculated scale sensitivity and selectivity based on CCAS category designation among Symptomatic individuals and Controls, and correlated CCAS-S performance against age and education, and in Symptomatic patients, against genetic repeat length, onset age, disease duration, motor ataxia, depression, and fatigue. Definite CCAS was identified in 46% of the Symptomatic group. False positive rate among Controls was 5.4%. Symptomatic individuals had poorer global CCAS-S performance than Controls, accounting for age and education. The domains of semantic fluency, phonemic fluency, and category switching that tap executive function and linguistic processing consistently separated Symptomatic individuals from Controls. CCAS-S scores correlated most closely with motor ataxia. Controls were similar to Pre-symptomatic individuals whose nearness to symptom onset was unknown. The use of the CCAS-S identifies a high CCAS prevalence in a large cohort of SCA patients, underscoring the utility of the scale and the notion that the CCAS is the third cornerstone of clinical ataxiology.

Uncertainty of Vowel Predictions as a Digital Biomarker for Ataxic Dysarthria.

Dysarthria is a common manifestation across cerebellar ataxias leading to impairments in communication, reduced social connections, and decreased quality of life. While dysarthria symptoms may be present in other neurological conditions, ataxic dysarthria is a perceptually distinct motor speech disorder, with the most prominent characteristics being articulation and prosody abnormalities along with distorted vowels. We hypothesized that uncertainty of vowel predictions by an automatic speech recognition system can capture speech changes present in cerebellar ataxia. Speech of participants with ataxia (N=61) and healthy controls (N=25) was recorded during the "picture description" task. Additionally, participants' dysarthric speech and ataxia severity were assessed on a Brief Ataxia Rating Scale (BARS). Eight participants with ataxia had speech and BARS data at two timepoints. A neural network trained for phoneme prediction was applied to speech recordings. Average entropy of vowel tokens predictions (AVE) was computed for each participant's recording, together with mean pitch and intensity standard deviations (MPSD and MISD) in the vowel segments. AVE and MISD demonstrated associations with BARS speech score (Spearman's rho=0.45 and 0.51), and AVE demonstrated associations with BARS total (rho=0.39). In the longitudinal cohort, Wilcoxon pairwise signed rank test demonstrated an increase in BARS total and AVE, while BARS speech and acoustic measures did not significantly increase. Relationship of AVE to both BARS speech and BARS total, as well as the ability to capture disease progression even in absence of measured speech decline, indicates the potential of AVE as a digital biomarker for cerebellar ataxia.

Consensus Paper: Cerebellum and Ageing.

Given the key roles of the cerebellum in motor, cognitive, and affective operations and given the decline of brain functions with aging, cerebellar circuitry is attracting the attention of the scientific community. The cerebellum plays a key role in timing aspects of both motor and cognitive operations, including for complex tasks such as spatial navigation. Anatomically, the cerebellum is connected with the basal ganglia via disynaptic loops, and it receives inputs from nearly every region in the cerebral cortex. The current leading hypothesis is that the cerebellum builds internal models and facilitates automatic behaviors through multiple interactions with the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia and spinal cord. The cerebellum undergoes structural and functional changes with aging, being involved in mobility frailty and related cognitive impairment as observed in the physio-cognitive decline syndrome (PCDS) affecting older, functionally-preserved adults who show slowness and/or weakness. Reductions in cerebellar volume accompany aging and are at least correlated with cognitive decline. There is a strongly negative correlation between cerebellar volume and age in cross-sectional studies, often mirrored by a reduced performance in motor tasks. Still, predictive motor timing scores remain stable over various age groups despite marked cerebellar atrophy. The cerebello-frontal network could play a significant role in processing speed and impaired cerebellar function due to aging might be compensated by increasing frontal activity to optimize processing speed in the elderly. For cognitive operations, decreased functional connectivity of the default mode network (DMN) is correlated with lower performances. Neuroimaging studies highlight that the cerebellum might be involved in the cognitive decline occurring in Alzheimer's disease (AD), independently of contributions of the cerebral cortex. Grey matter volume loss in AD is distinct from that seen in normal aging, occurring initially in cerebellar posterior lobe regions, and is associated with neuronal, synaptic and beta-amyloid neuropathology. Regarding depression, structural imaging studies have identified a relationship between depressive symptoms and cerebellar gray matter volume. In particular, major depressive disorder (MDD) and higher depressive symptom burden are associated with smaller gray matter volumes in the total cerebellum as well as the posterior cerebellum, vermis, and posterior Crus I. From the genetic/epigenetic standpoint, prominent DNA methylation changes in the cerebellum with aging are both in the form of hypo- and hyper-methylation, and the presumably increased/decreased expression of certain genes might impact on motor coordination. Training influences motor skills and lifelong practice might contribute to structural maintenance of the cerebellum in old age, reducing loss of grey matter volume and therefore contributing to the maintenance of cerebellar reserve. Non-invasive cerebellar stimulation techniques are increasingly being applied to enhance cerebellar functions related to motor, cognitive, and affective operations. They might enhance cerebellar reserve in the elderly. In conclusion, macroscopic and microscopic changes occur in the cerebellum during the lifespan, with changes in structural and functional connectivity with both the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia. With the aging of the population and the impact of aging on quality of life, the panel of experts considers that there is a huge need to clarify how the effects of aging on the cerebellar circuitry modify specific motor, cognitive, and affective operations both in normal subjects and in brain disorders such as AD or MDD, with the goal of preventing symptoms or improving the motor, cognitive, and affective symptoms.

Stage-Dependent Biomarker Changes in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3/Machado-Joseph disease is the most common autosomal dominant ataxia. In view of the development of targeted therapies, knowledge of early biomarker changes is needed. We analyzed cross-sectional data of 292 spinocerebellar ataxia type 3/Machado-Joseph disease mutation carriers. Blood concentrations of mutant ATXN3 were high before and after ataxia onset, whereas neurofilament light deviated from normal 13.3 years before onset. Pons and cerebellar white matter volumes decreased and deviated from normal 2.2 years and 0.6 years before ataxia onset. We propose a staging model of spinocerebellar ataxia type 3/Machado-Joseph disease that includes a biomarker stage characterized by objective indicators of neurodegeneration before ataxia onset. ANN NEUROL 2024;95:400-406.

Clinical and imaging predictors of late-onset GM2 gangliosidosis: A scoping review.

OBJECTIVE: Late-onset GM2 gangliosidosis (LOGG) subtypes late-onset Tay-Sachs (LOTS) and Sandhoff disease (LOSD) are ultra-rare neurodegenerative lysosomal storage disorders presenting with weakness, ataxia, and neuropsychiatric symptoms. Previous studies considered LOTS and LOSD clinically indistinguishable; recent studies have challenged this. We performed a scoping review to ascertain whether imaging and clinical features may differentiate these diseases. METHODS: We examined MEDLINE/non-MEDLINE databases up to May 2022. Articles reporting brain imaging findings in genetically/enzymatically confirmed LOGG, symptom onset at age ≥ 10 years (or evaluated at least once ≥18 years) were included, yielding 170 LOGG patients (LOTS = 127, LOSD = 43) across 68 papers. We compared LOTS versus LOSD and performed regression analyses. Results were corrected for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: Age of onset was lower in LOTS versus LOSD (17.9 ± 8.2 vs. 23.9 ± 14.4 years, p = 0.017), although disease duration was similar (p = 0.34). LOTS more commonly had psychosis/bipolar symptoms (35.0% vs. 9.30%, p = 0.011) but less frequent swallowing problems (4.10% vs. 18.60%, p = 0.041). Cerebellar atrophy was more common in LOTS (89.0%) versus LOSD (60.5%), p < 0.0001, with more severe atrophy in LOTS (p = 0.0005). Brainstem atrophy was documented only in LOTS (14.2%). Independent predictors of LOTS versus LOSD (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]) included the presence of psychosis/bipolar symptoms (4.95 [1.59-19.52], p = 0.011), no swallowing symptoms (0.16 [0.036-0.64], p = 0.011), and cerebellar atrophy (5.81 [2.10-17.08], p = 0.0009). Lower age of onset (0.96 [0.93-1.00], p = 0.075) and tremor (2.50 [0.94-7.43], p = 0.078) were marginally statistically significant but felt relevant to include in the model. INTERPRETATION: These data suggest significant differences in symptomatology, disease course, and imaging findings between LOTS and LOSD.

Telemedicine-Based Cognitive Examinations During COVID-19 and Beyond: Perspective of the Massachusetts General Hospital Behavioral Neurology & Neuropsychiatry Group.

Telehealth and telemedicine have encountered explosive growth since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in increased access to care for patients located far from medical centers and clinics. Subspecialty clinicians in behavioral neurology & neuropsychiatry (BNNP) have implemented the use of telemedicine platforms to perform cognitive examinations that were previously office based. In this perspective article, BNNP clinicians at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) describe their experience performing cognitive examinations via telemedicine. The article reviews the goals, prerequisites, advantages, and potential limitations of performing a video- or telephone-based telemedicine cognitive examination. The article shares the approaches used by MGH BNNP clinicians to examine cognitive and behavioral areas, such as orientation, attention and executive functions, language, verbal learning and memory, visual learning and memory, visuospatial function, praxis, and abstract abilities, as well as to survey for neuropsychiatric symptoms and assess activities of daily living. Limitations of telemedicine-based cognitive examinations include limited access to and familiarity with telecommunication technologies on the patient side, limitations of the technology itself on the clinician side, and the limited psychometric validation of virtual assessments. Therefore, an in-person examination with a BNNP clinician or a formal in-person neuropsychological examination with a neuropsychologist may be recommended. Overall, this article emphasizes the use of standardized cognitive and behavioral assessment instruments that are either in the public domain or, if copyrighted, are nonproprietary and do not require a fee to be used by the practicing BNNP clinician.