Coparenting, parental anxiety/depression, and child behavior problems: The actor-partner interdependence model with low-income married couples.

A considerable amount of research has suggested significant associations among perceived coparenting relationships, parental anxiety/depression, and children's adjustment. Although family members' function is influenced by other members in a shared context, much of the prior work relied on one parent's perspective to examine the relationship between both parents. To address this important limitation, we applied the actor-partner interdependence model and accounted for the interdependence between fathers and mothers in examining the mediating role of parental anxiety/depression in the association between coparenting quality and child behavior problems. The present study included 1,827 low-income couples from the Supporting Healthy Marriage project (mothers: 51.25% of White, 14.34% African American, 35.31% Hispanic; fathers: 48.11% White, 18.54% African/Black American, 35.34% Hispanic). The results showed that both fathers' and mothers' perceptions of coparenting quality had significant effects on fathers' anxiety/depression. In contrast, mothers' anxiety/depression was affected only by mothers' perceptions of coparenting quality and not by fathers' perceptions. Overall, the effects of parents' perception of coparenting on children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were largely mediated by parental anxiety/depression. The findings highlight both interdependent and independent roles of fathers and mothers in the pathways from coparenting quality to children's behavior problems. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Household chaos as a moderator of the link between parents' inhibitory control and parenting quality.

This study considered how mothers' and fathers' inhibitory control, an aspect of executive functioning (EF) that reflects how well an individual can suppress a dominant response to perform a subdominant response, is associated with observations of their parenting quality when children were 7.5 years old. Furthermore, aspects of the daily home environment may strengthen or undermine parents' ability to draw on their inhibitory control and exhibit high-quality parenting. Household chaos, including clutter, confusion, and ambient noise, may impair parents' ability to successfully activate inhibitory control and engage in high-quality parenting. Thus, additional analyses examined whether parents' perceptions of household chaos moderated associations between inhibitory control and parenting. Data came from a sample of approximately 102 families headed by different-sex parents (n = 99 mothers; n = 90 fathers) of 7.5-year-old children who participated in a study of family development. Findings from multilevel models indicated that inhibitory control predicted greater positive-sensitive parenting in contexts of low household chaos. Associations between inhibitory control and parenting quality were not statistically significant in contexts of average or high household chaos. These findings highlight the importance of considering household chaos and inhibitory control as factors associated with parenting quality for fathers and mothers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Patterns of coparenting and young children's social-emotional adjustment in low-income families.

This study identified coparenting patterns using data collected across 2007-2010 from low-income couples (N = 2915; 26.90% non-Hispanic White; 9.41% non-Hispanic Black; 34.24% Hispanic, 29.27% other or mixed race) with young children (M = 3.65 years; SD = 1.31 years; 48% girls) and examined relations with children's social-emotional adjustment. Latent profile analysis revealed four coparenting patterns: mutual high-quality (43.4%), moderate-quality, mothers less positive (31.8%), moderate-quality, fathers less positive (15.9%), and low-quality, mothers less positive (8.9%). When parents' perspectives on coparenting were positive and congruent, children fared best. Children also fared well when coparenting quality was moderate, and mothers were less positive than fathers. When coparenting quality was moderate and fathers were less positive than mothers, children showed the poorest adjustment.

Paternal identity, maternal gate opening, and fathers' longitudinal positive engagement.

Fathers' positive engagement (FPE) benefits children's development but some children receive greater FPE than others. Understanding why some fathers demonstrate greater FPE than others is critical to efforts to support FPE. However, studies of FPE often fail to account for the father's residential context and changes in interparental relationships and FPE that occur as the child develops. This study examined the effects of paternal identity (i.e., status-level/role-level centrality) and maternal gate opening on FPE in diverse residential contexts from early to middle childhood. Using longitudinal multilevel modeling, this study analyzed data from 2,339 families in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Results demonstrated that maternal gate opening strengthened the association between paternal status-level centrality and FPE, especially, for fathers who were nonresident at childbirth. This protective effect did not change by child age. Furthermore, fathers who were resident at childbirth but nonresident in middle childhood increased in FPE over time. However, among fathers whose residential status shifted from nonresident to resident, those with low role-level centrality decreased in FPE over time. For fathers who were resident from birth to middle childhood, high maternal gate opening was associated with greater FPE, although this effect faded over time. Overall, these findings suggest the importance of both establishment of a strong paternal identity and maintenance of maternal support to promote long-term FPE. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Same Behaviors, Different Outcomes: Mothers' and Fathers' Observed Challenging Behaviors Measured Using a New Coding System Relate Differentially to Children's Social-Emotional Development.

This study used a newly developed coding system for measuring the quality of parenting behavior to examine associations with children's social-emotional development. The Risky Interaction Support and Challenge Scale (RISCS) measures the extent to which parents engage in behaviors that present physical and regulatory challenges to children, as well as parents' tendency to allow children to pursue action goals autonomously. These behaviors were observed while parents (n = 57 fathers; n = 55 mothers; n = 50 pairs) interacted with their 1-year-olds who played on a structure that included a slide, a small climbing wall, and a tunnel. Trained raters reliably used the RISCS to measure several dimensions of parent behaviors related to children's exploration, and all but one of the dimensions captured adequate variability in parent behavior. Although mothers and fathers did not differ in any of the dimensions, the associations between parent behavior and children's social-emotional development did not overlap. Fathers who engaged in greater autonomy allowance and lower overprotection had toddlers with lower levels of internalizing behavior, whereas mothers who challenged children's regulatory competence had toddlers with lower levels of externalizing behavior and greater competence. We discuss the implications of the findings for the literature on attachment theory and father-child relationships.

Measuring Maternal Gatekeeping: A Rasch Analysis of the Parental Regulation Inventory.

To understand factors that may influence father involvement, researchers have increasingly considered maternal gatekeeping, or the extent to which mothers might attempt to regulate (i.e., encourage, discourage) fathers' involvement in childrearing. Although several theoretical models of maternal gatekeeping have been advanced in recent years, maternal gatekeeping measurement has lagged significantly behind developments in gatekeeping theory. Rasch analysis offers a useful framework for conducting item-level analyses to evaluate measurement validity and identify areas of improvement for measurement scales. In the present study, Rasch analysis techniques were implemented to 1) illustrate how modern psychometric methods can be applied to validate measures in family psychology and 2) examine the validity of the Parental Regulation Inventory, a commonly used maternal gatekeeping measure (PRI; Van Egeren, 2000). Results indicated that the PRI exhibited adequate construct validity; however, measurement could be improved by including additional items on the PRI subscales. In particular, Rasch analyses indicated floor effects on fathers' reports of maternal gate closing, floor and ceiling effects on fathers' reports of maternal gate opening, and floor and ceiling effects on fathers' reports of maternal communication at 3- and 9- months postpartum. Recommendations for improving maternal gatekeeping measurement and implications for maternal gatekeeping theory are discussed.

Couple, Parent, and Infant Characteristics and Perceptions of Conflictual Coparenting over the Transition to Parenthood.

This study examined trajectories of new parents' perceptions of conflictual coparenting and predictors thereof. Partners in 182 dual-earner different-gender U.S. couples reported their prenatal marital conflict and individual characteristics (conflictual coparenting in the family of origin, parenting self-efficacy expectations, and parenting role beliefs) during the third trimester of pregnancy, their infant's characteristics (negative affectivity and gender) at 3 months postpartum, and their perceptions of undermining coparenting and exposure to conflict at 3, 6, and 9 months postpartum. Results of latent growth curve models indicated that new parents' perceptions of undermining, but not exposure to conflict, increased similarly from 3 to 9 months. Fathers perceived higher initial undermining than mothers, but there were no gender differences in exposure to conflict. For mothers, greater prenatal marital conflict and greater infant negative affectivity were associated with elevated levels of perceived undermining and exposure to conflict. For fathers, more egalitarian role beliefs were associated with lower undermining and less exposure to conflict, whereas greater prenatal marital conflict, higher conflictual coparenting in the family of origin, and greater infant negative affectivity were associated with greater exposure to conflict. Fathers also perceived greater undermining and exposure to conflict when mothers reported higher prenatal marital conflict, whereas mothers' greater conflictual coparenting in the family of origin was related to fathers' lower exposure to conflict. These findings provide valuable information to strengthen programs focused on improving coparenting.

Coparenting across the transition to parenthood: Qualitative evidence from South-Brazilian families.

Despite the increase in research on coparenting, few studies have focused on non-North American or non-European families, which has hindered practice and policy targeting diverse countries. The authors used a qualitative, longitudinal, multiple case study to investigate coparenting agreement/disagreement and support/undermining, defined by Feinberg's model, in a sample of South-Brazilian families across the Transition to Parenthood (TtoP). Twelve first-time mothers and fathers (six nuclear families) of children who attended different childcare arrangements (i.e., maternal care, nanny care, and daycare center) participated in individual, semi-structured, face-to-face interviews at 6, 12, and 18 months postpartum. Deductive thematic analysis was adopted to explore and interpret the data. Similarities and singularities between families were found. Overall, agreement remained relatively stable during the first year, whereas disagreements concerning discipline demanded more parental negotiation as infants advanced toward toddlerhood. Support and undermining coexisted in the same families, although mothers and fathers expressed undermining differently. Our findings also revealed how Brazilian sociocultural aspects linked to the upbringing in the family of origin, gender role expectations, labor and financial spheres, as well as childcare arrangements, may have shaped the coparenting dynamics of the participants. This study contributes to the literature by shedding light on coparenting in South-Brazilian families. Our findings offer support to two key themes aligned with Feinberg's model of coparenting, that is agreement/disagreement and support/undermining, further reinforcing the importance of understanding coparenting in light of the families' ecological context, without disregarding singularities that mark each coparental relationship. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective.

A child's development is embedded within a complex system of relationships. Among the many relationships that influence children's growth and development, perhaps the most influential is the one that exists between parent and child. Recognition of the critical importance of early parent-child relationship quality for children's socioemotional, cognitive, neurobiological, and health outcomes has contributed to a shift in efforts to identify relational determinants of child outcomes. Recent efforts to extend models of relational health to the field of child development highlight the role that parent, child, and contextual factors play in supporting the development and maintenance of healthy parent-child relationships. This review presents a parent-child relational health perspective on development, with an emphasis on socioemotional outcomes in early childhood, along with brief attention to obesity and eating behavior as a relationally informed health outcome. Also emphasized here is the parent-health care provider relationship as a context for supporting healthy outcomes within families as well as screening and intervention efforts to support optimal relational health within families, with the goal of improving mental and physical health within our communities.

Paternal antisociality and growth in child delinquent behaviors: Moderating effects of child sex and respiratory sinus arrhythmia.

Children of fathers with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) are at risk for developing delinquency, and both biological and environmental mechanisms contribute. In this study, we test parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) function as a vulnerability/sensitivity attribute in predicting intergenerational associations between fathers' antisociality and children's delinquency scores. We followed 207 children (ages 8-12 years at intake; 139 boys) across three annual assessments. Fathers' antisociality was measured via maternal reports on the Family Interview for Genetic Studies (FIGS). At Year 1, children's resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was measured. At Years 1, 2, and 3, child delinquent behaviors were assessed using the delinquency subscale of the Youth Self-Report. At age 8, boys' delinquency scores were associated weakly with paternal antisocial behaviors. However, boys' delinquency scores increased steeply thereafter specifically for those who had fathers with higher antisocial symptoms. In addition, associations between delinquency and paternal antisociality were largest for boys with higher resting RSA. For girls, growth in delinquency was unrelated to both father antisociality and resting RSA. These findings (a) suggest moderating effects of children's age, sex, and PNS function on associations between father antisocial behavior and offspring delinquency; and (b) provide insights into differential vulnerability among children of fathers with ASPD.

Serotonergic sensitivity alleles moderate relations between attachment security at age three and socioemotional competence at age five.

Children with higher socioemotional competence are more likely to build constructive relationships with others and experience more positive adjustment outcomes in later periods. Securely attached children are likely to develop better socioemotional competence, but genetic moderation of associations between attachment and later socioemotional competence has received less attention. Using structural equation modeling, this study analyzed data collected from 1,337 children (51% male) born from 1998 to 2000 in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study. The results demonstrated that relations between attachment security at age 3 years and their social competence at age 5 years differed by two serotonin transporter variants (5-HTTLPR, STin2). Effect sizes of these interactions were larger than effect sizes of main effects and the benefit of having sensitive alleles was consistently supported. This implies that having more secure attachment in the early developmental period is advantageous especially for children with minor alleles who have greater environmental sensitivity.

Infant Negative Affect Moderates Longitudinal Associations between Maternal Gatekeeping and Toddlers' Social-Emotional Difficulties.

Maternal gatekeeping is characterized by the extent to which mothers engage in behaviors that ultimately serve to inhibit (i.e., gate close) or encourage (i.e., gate open) father involvement in childrearing. This study considered direct and indirect associations between observed and reported maternal gatekeeping and children's social-emotional difficulties. Data come from a sample of 182 parents who transitioned to parenthood in 2008-2010 and their young children. Results of longitudinal path analyses indicated mothers' perceptions of maternal gate closing at 3-months postpartum were associated with greater dysregulation (ß = .21, 95% CI [.08, .35], p = .002) and externalizing (ß = .25, 95% CI [.10, .41], p = .001) in 26-month-old toddlers. Observed maternal gate opening at 3-months postpartum predicted lower dysregulation (ß = -.18, 95% CI [-.32, -.05], p = .008) in 26-month-old toddlers. Observed fathers' parenting quality did not mediate associations between maternal gatekeeping and child social-emotional difficulties. However, a statistically significant interaction between infant negative affect and observed maternal gate opening emerged as a predictor of toddler dysregulation, such that the adjusted negative effect of observed maternal gate opening on toddler dysregulation was strongest when infant negative affect was low. Statistically significant interactions between fathers' perceptions of gate closing and infant negative affect also emerged as predictors of toddler dysregulation and externalizing. Infants high in negative affect exposed to maternal gate closing were at the greatest risk for externalizing and dysregulation difficulties. Implications for maternal gatekeeping theory and research are discussed.

Contributions of Parenting Quality and Coparenting Relationship Quality to the Development of Child Executive Functioning.

Executive functioning (EF) skills contribute positively to mental and physical health across the lifespan. High-quality parenting is associated with better child EF. However, research has largely focused on the contributions of mothers' parenting and failed to apply a family systems perspective to more comprehensively consider the consequences of parenting quality and coparenting relationship quality for the development of children's EF. This study examined the independent and joint contributions of mothers' observed parenting, fathers' observed parenting, and supportive coparenting during infancy to children's attention in toddlerhood (26 months) and aspects of EF (i.e., inhibitory control and impulsivity) at 7.5 years of age. Data came from a study of 166 families who participated in a larger longitudinal study. Assessments were conducted at 9-months postpartum (n = 158), 26-months postpartum (n = 114), and when children were 7.5 years of age (n = 100). Results indicated statistically significant associations between fathers' parenting quality at 9-months postpartum and greater child inhibitory control at 7.5 years of age. Mothers' parenting quality at 9-months postpartum was associated with better child attention in toddlerhood. Supportive coparenting was not directly associated with toddler or child EF. However, supportive coparenting moderated the association between fathers' parenting quality and child impulsivity, such that the adjusted effect of fathers' parenting on child impulsivity was negative when supportive coparenting was high. Findings highlight the importance of considering the development of child EF within a family systems framework.

The Best and Worst of Times: Predictors of New Fathers' Parenting Satisfaction and Stress.

This study examined predictors of new fathers' parenting satisfaction and stress using data from 182 fathers in dual-earner couples who were followed across their transition to parenthood. Expectant fathers completed surveys about their personal characteristics (anxiety, belief in maternal essentialism, parenting self-efficacy expectations) and family relationships (confidence in the couple relationship) during the third trimester of pregnancy. At three months postpartum, fathers completed surveys about their family relationships (maternal gatekeeping) and child characteristics (infant negative emotionality, infant gender), as well as their parenting satisfaction and stress. Results of regression analyses indicated that expectant fathers with greater parenting self-efficacy expectations reported less parenting stress and greater satisfaction at three months postpartum. More anxious expectant fathers were at risk of experiencing elevated levels of parenting stress postpartum, as were fathers with lower endorsement of maternal essentialism and infants highly negative in mood. Fathers were more satisfied in their roles as parents when mothers engaged in greater gate-opening behavior, particularly when those fathers expressed less confidence in their couple relationships prior to their child's birth. Results indicate the importance of screening expectant and new fathers for anxiety, strengthening expectant fathers' parenting self-efficacy, and encouraging greater maternal support for engaged fathering.

Fathers' Parenting and Coparenting Behavior in Dual-Earner Families: Contributions of Traditional Masculinity, Father Nurturing Role Beliefs, and Maternal Gate Closing.

We investigated whether dual-earner fathers' adherence to traditional masculine norms, father nurturing role beliefs, and maternal gate closing behavior predicted the quality of new fathers' observed parenting and coparenting behavior. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of the transition to parenthood among 182 dual-earner different-sex couples. Expectant fathers reported their masculine agency, hostile sexism, gendered provider beliefs, and father nurturing role beliefs in the third trimester of pregnancy. Maternal gate closing behavior was coded from observations of mother-father-infant interaction at 3 months postpartum. At 9 months postpartum the quality of fathers' parenting behavior was coded from observations of father-infant interaction, and the quality of fathers' coparenting behavior was coded from observations of mother-father-infant interaction. SEM analyses indicated that fathers who held stronger father nurturing role beliefs showed more positive parenting behavior and less undermining coparenting behavior. Fathers higher in masculine agency also showed more positive parenting behavior. Mothers' greater gate closing behavior was linked to less positive parenting and less supportive coparenting behavior by fathers. More positive couple behavior observed prenatally was also associated with better parenting and coparenting by fathers. These results highlight the complexity of relations of traditional masculinity, father role beliefs, and maternal gate closing with the quality of new fathers' behaviors with children and partners in dual-earner families.

The Roles of Mothers' Perceptions of Grandmothers' Gatekeeping and Fathers' Parenting Competence in Maternal Gatekeeping.

Objective: This study investigated how new mothers' perceptions of maternal grandmothers' gatekeeping behaviors and perceptions of fathers' parenting competence are associated with maternal gatekeeping behaviors. Background: In the development of coparenting relationships at the transition to parenthood, the roles of extended family members, although important, have received little research attention. Grandmothers' gatekeeping may serve as a reference for maternal gatekeeping behaviors, but its role depends on mothers' own perceptions of fathers' parenting competence. Method: Mothers from 172 dual-earner, different-gender couples reported their own mothers' gatekeeping behaviors and their own perceptions of fathers' parenting competence at 3 months postpartum. Maternal gatekeeping behaviors toward fathers were reported by mothers at both 3 and 9 months postpartum. Results: When mothers perceived that maternal grandmothers engaged in higher levels of gatekeeping behaviors, mothers engaged in more gate-opening behaviors but only when mothers perceived fathers as highly competent. There were no significant associations between mothers' perceptions of grandmothers' gatekeeping and maternal gate-closing behaviors. Conclusion: Adult mothers, who likely have developed their own sets of ideas about parenting, are still susceptible to support and criticism from their own mothers. Implications: Practitioners would do well to encourage expectant and new parents to consider the role of extended family in the development of their coparenting relationships, and to develop plans for support-seeking, boundary management, and negotiation of conflicts. To help reduce maternal gate-closing and enhance maternal gate-opening behaviors, practitioners could support fathers' development of parenting skills and help mothers develop awareness of fathers' skills.

New fathers' parenting quality: Personal, contextual, and child precursors.

Fathers' high-quality parenting behaviors support the development of positive social and emotional adjustment in children. However, a complete understanding of individual differences in fathers' parenting quality requires considering multiple precursors to parenting in the same model. This study examined associations of three classes of predictors with fathers' parenting quality: personal (i.e., personality, intuitive parenting behavior, and progressive beliefs), contextual (i.e., supportive coparenting, romantic relationship quality, job satisfaction), and child characteristics (i.e., temperament). These predictors of observed parenting quality (i.e., sensitivity, emotional engagement, positive regard) were examined among 182 fathers who transitioned to parenthood in 2008-2010. Results from structural equation modeling analyses indicated that fathers who showed higher-quality parenting behavior with their 9-month-old infants were those who demonstrated greater intuitive parenting behavior prior to their child's birth, reported greater conscientiousness, reported greater openness to experience, and had more supportive coparenting relationships with their partners at 3 months postpartum. Implications for future research on fathers' parenting and applications to prevention and intervention programs for expectant and new parents are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Paternal stimulation and father-infant attachment.

This study examined the longitudinal associations between fathers' observed parenting behaviors and father-infant attachment (n = 58 father-infant dyads). Fathers were observed playing with their infants at 9 months postpartum and were assessed for stimulating behaviors (i.e. physical and/or object stimulation), as well as their sensitivity and intrusiveness. When the infants were 12 to 18 months of age, fathers and infants participated together in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) to assess father-infant attachment security. Logistic regression analyses revealed that higher levels of paternal stimulation at 9 months postpartum were associated with greater odds of classification as a secure father-infant dyad. Additionally, fathers' observed intrusiveness at 9 months postpartum moderated this association; greater paternal stimulation was associated with significantly greater odds of father-infant attachment security at low and average levels of paternal intrusiveness, but not at high levels of paternal intrusiveness. This study provides new insight into the paternal behaviors that may foster secure father-infant attachment.

New Fathers' Perceptions of Dyadic Adjustment: The Roles of Maternal Gatekeeping and Coparenting Closeness.

Although the association between maternal gatekeeping and relationship functioning has been explored by a few studies, none of these have focused on fathers' perceptions of these constructs. Given that today's new fathers are challenged by elevated expectations for active parenting and coparenting even as most new mothers remain primary caregivers of infant children, this is a critical omission. This study examined the associations between new fathers' perceptions of maternal gatekeeping and change in dyadic adjustment as mediated through coparenting closeness. Maternal gatekeeping was reported by 182 fathers at 3 months postpartum, coparenting closeness was reported at 3 and 6 months postpartum, and dyadic adjustment was reported during the third trimester of pregnancy and at 9 months postpartum. Fathers' perceptions of relative change in coparenting closeness from 3 to 6 months mediated associations between fathers' perceptions of maternal gatekeeping at 3 months and relative change in dyadic adjustment from the third trimester to 9 months postpartum. In particular, findings indicate that greater perceived maternal gate opening was associated with higher levels of dyadic adjustment through higher levels of coparenting closeness, whereas greater perceived maternal gate closing was associated with lower levels of dyadic adjustment through lower levels of coparenting closeness. This study highlights the importance of studying fathers in the context of the family system and the role of the coparenting relationship at the transition to parenthood in couple relationship functioning.

Aunque la asociación entre el control materno y el funcionamiento de la relación ha sido analizado por algunos estudios, ninguno de estos se ha centrado en las percepciones de los padres de estos constructos. Teniendo en cuenta que los padres recientes de hoy se enfrentan al desafío de expectativas elevadas de crianza y cocrianza activas, incluso cuando la mayoría de las madres recientes siguen siendo las cuidadoras principales de los bebés, esta es una omisión crucial. Este estudio examinó las asociaciones entre las percepciones de los padres recientes con respecto al control materno y el cambio en el ajuste diádico a través de la proximidad en la cocrianza. Ciento ochenta y dos padres informaron el control materno tres meses después del parto, la proximidad en la cocrianza se informó a los tres y a los seis meses después del parto y el ajuste diádico se informó durante el tercer trimestre de embarazo y a los nueve meses después del parto. Las percepciones de los padres del cambio relativo en la proximidad de la cocrianza desde los tres a los seis meses mediaron las asociaciones entre las percepciones de los padres del control materno a los tres meses y del cambio relativo en el ajuste diádico desde el tercer trimestre hasta los nueve meses después del parto. En particular, los resultados indican que una mayor percepción de soltura del control de la madre estuvo asociado con niveles más altos de ajuste diádico mediante niveles más altos de proximidad en la cocrianza, mientras que una mayor percepción de rigurosidad del control de la madre estuvo asociado con niveles más bajos de ajuste diádico mediante niveles más bajos de proximidad en la cocrianza. Este estudio destaca la importancia de estudiar a los padres en el contexto del sistema familiar y el papel que desempeña la relación de cocrianza durante la transición a la paternidad en el funcionamiento de la relación de pareja.