The Association Between Military Sexual Trauma and Use of VA and Non-VA Health Care Services Among Female Veterans With Military Service in Iraq or Afghanistan.

Military sexual trauma (MST) has been linked with increased rates of mental health disorders among veterans. Few studies have addressed how MST is related to use of VA and non-VA health care. The purpose of the current study was to (a) examine the association between MST, combat experiences, and mental health outcomes (i.e., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] and depression) and (b) examine the association of MST and use of VA and non-VA health care services among female veterans who served in Iraq and Afghanistan. Female respondents to a survey assessing Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF)/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) veterans' needs and health ( N = 185) completed measures of demographic variables, military history, combat exposure, MST, PTSD, and depression symptoms, and use of VA and non-VA health care. Overall, 70% of the sample experienced one or more combat-related experiences and 15.7% endorsed MST during deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. MST and combat exposure were both positively associated with PTSD and depression symptoms even after controlling for the effects of demographic and military history variables. MST was associated with increased use of VA mental health services in bivariate results but was not independently related to VA service utilization after accounting for PTSD and depression symptoms. Approximately half of the women who reported MST had not used VA health care. Continued outreach and education initiatives may be needed to ensure veterans understand the resources available to address MST-related mental and physical health problems through the VA.

Social anxiety and alcohol-related sexual victimization: A longitudinal pilot study of college women.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to examine social anxiety as a risk factor for alcohol-related sexual victimization among college women. METHOD: Women (Time 1: n = 574; Time 2: n = 88) who reported consuming alcohol at least once during the assessment timeframe participated. Social anxiety, alcohol use, alcohol-related consequences, and sexual victimization were assessed twice, approximately two months apart. Logistic regressions were used to examine social anxiety as a risk factor for alcohol-related sexual victimization at both time points. RESULTS: Longitudinally, women high in social anxiety were approximately three times more likely to endorse unwanted alcohol-related sexual experiences compared to women with low to moderate social anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests social anxiety, a modifiable construct, increases risk for alcohol-related sexual victimization among college women. Implications for clinicians and risk-reduction program developers are discussed.

Prevalence and correlates of cannabis use in an outpatient VA posttraumatic stress disorder clinic.

Recent research has documented high rates of comorbidity between cannabis use disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in veterans. However, despite possible links between PTSD and cannabis use, relatively little is known about cannabis use in veterans who present for PTSD treatment, particularly among samples not diagnosed with a substance use disorder. This study examined the prevalence of cannabis use and the psychological and functional correlates of cannabis use among a large sample of veterans seeking treatment at a Veterans Affairs (VA) PTSD specialty clinic. Male veterans (N = 719) who presented at a VA specialty outpatient PTSD clinic completed measures of demographic variables, combat exposure, alcohol, cannabis and other drug use, and PTSD and depressive symptoms. The associations among demographic, psychological, and functional variables were estimated using logistic regressions. Overall, 14.6% of participants reported using cannabis in the past 6 months. After controlling for age, race, service era, and combat exposure, past 6-month cannabis use was associated with unmarried status, use of tobacco products, other drug use, hazardous alcohol use, PTSD severity, depressive symptom severity, and suicidality. The present findings show that cannabis use is quite prevalent among veterans seeking PTSD specialty treatment and is associated with poorer mental health and use of other substances. It may be possible to identify and treat individuals who use cannabis in specialty clinics (e.g., PTSD clinics) where they are likely to present for treatment of associated mental health issues. (PsycINFO Database Record

Sexual revictimization among Iraq and Afghanistan war era veterans.

Research in both civilian and military populations has demonstrated that females who experience childhood sexual abuse (CSA) are more likely to experience sexual assault in adulthood than females who did not experience CSA. Among veteran samples, however, little research has examined previous sexual assault as a risk factor of military sexual assault and post-military sexual assault, and very little research has examined revictimization in male veterans. The purpose of this study was to examine risk of sexual revictimization in a sample of veterans who served during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. A sample of 3106 veterans (80.4% male) completed a measure of lifetime exposure to traumatic events, including sexual abuse and sexual assault. Logistic regression analyses were used to examine previous sexual abuse/assault as predictors of later sexual assault; analyses were conducted separately for males and females. In general, previous sexual abuse/assault was associated with later sexual assault in both male and female veterans. These findings have important assessment and treatment implications for clinicians working with veterans.

The prevalence of binge drinking and receipt of provider drinking advice among US veterans with military service in Iraq or Afghanistan.

BACKGROUND: Binge drinking is a significant public health concern linked to a number of health and psychosocial problems. Military service in Afghanistan (OEF) and Iraq (OIF) has been associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and increased hazardous drinking. Brief alcohol interventions may reduce hazardous drinking but are infrequently provided to at-risk drinkers. OBJECTIVES: This study examined the association of combat exposure, PTSD symptoms, binge drinking, use of VA and non-VA healthcare services, and the incidence of provider drinking advice. METHODS: OEF/OIF veterans (n = 1087) completed measures of demographics, military history, combat exposure, PTSD symptoms, and binge drinking as part of a confidential mail survey study conducted in 2009 and 2010 (response rate = 29%). Patient report of receiving advice in the past year from a provider about their drinking was queried for frequent binge drinkers. The association of demographic variables, combat exposure, PTSD, and use of healthcare services with binge drinking and receipt of provider drinking advice was estimated using logistic regression. RESULTS: Overall, 51% of the sample reported at least one episode of binge drinking in the past year and 19% were identified as frequent binge drinkers. PTSD was related to frequent binge drinking. At-risk veterans using VA healthcare services were significantly more likely to receive provider drinking advice (50%) than veterans not using VA (13.4%). CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for increased vigilance and action to identify and counsel at-risk veterans about alcohol misuse in this population.

Functional correlates of military sexual assault in male veterans.

Despite research findings that similar numbers of male and female veterans are affected by military sexual trauma (MST), there has been considerably less research on the effects of MST specific to male veterans. The aim of the present study was to provide preliminary data describing functional correlates of military sexual assault (MSA) among male Iraq/Afghanistan-era veterans to identify potential health care needs for this population. We evaluated the following functional correlates: posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depression symptoms, alcohol use, drug use, suicidality, social support, violent behavior in the past 30 days, incarceration, disability eligibility status, and use of outpatient mental health treatment. We compared 3 groups: (a) male veterans who endorsed a history of MSA (n = 39), (b) a general non-MSA sample (n = 2,003), and (c) a matched non-MSA sample (n = 39) identified by matching algorithms on the basis of factors (e.g., age, education, adult premilitary sexual trauma history, childhood sexual and physical trauma history, and race) that could increase veterans' vulnerability to the functional correlates examined. MSA in men was associated with greater PTSD symptom severity, greater depression symptom severity, higher suicidality, and higher outpatient mental health treatment, above and beyond the effects of vulnerability factors. These findings suggest that, for male veterans, MSA may result in a severe and enduring overall symptom profile requiring ongoing clinical management.

The Relationship Between Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Physical Health in a Survey of U.S. Veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan Era.

BACKGROUND: Although a large body of literature has linked posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with poor physical health among older veterans, less is known regarding the association between PTSD and health among relatively younger cohorts of veterans. OBJECTIVE: The current study examined the association between PTSD and self-reported health among a sample of veterans who served in the recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. METHOD: Veterans (N = 1030) who served in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan completed measures of PTSD symptom severity and self-rated health between September 2009 and February 2010. Analyses examined the association between PTSD symptoms and health outcomes. RESULTS: In analyses adjusted for age, sex, race, and combat exposure, PTSD symptom severity was positively related to the number of health conditions and health symptoms reported (ps<0.001). Additionally, in analyses adjusted for age, sex, race, combat exposure, number of health conditions, and number of health symptoms, PTSD symptom severity was associated with an increased likelihood of rating one's health as poor or fair and an increased likelihood of reporting that one's physical health limits participation in activities (ps<0.001). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that, consistent with previous research, PTSD symptom severity has a broad negative effect on physical health among veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan era. Health promotion among veterans with PTSD may help attenuate risk of physical health consequences.

The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) Veterans: a meta-analysis.

Literature on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) prevalence among Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) veterans report estimates ranging from 1.4% to 60%. A more precise estimate is necessary for projecting healthcare needs and informing public policy. This meta-analysis examined 33 studies published between 2007 and 2013 involving 4,945,897 OEF/OIF veterans, and PTSD prevalence was estimated at 23%. Publication year and percentage of Caucasian participants and formerly active duty participants explained significant variability in prevalence across studies. PTSD remains a concern for a substantial percentage of OEF/OIF veterans. To date, most studies have estimated prevalence among OEF/OIF veterans using VA medical chart review. Thus, results generalize primarily to the prevalence of PTSD in medical records of OEF/OIF veterans who use VA services. Additional research is needed with randomly selected, representative samples administered diagnostic interviews. Significant financial and mental health resources are needed to promote recovery from PTSD.

Effects of Verbal Ability and Severity of Autism on Anxiety in Adolescents With ASD: One-Year Follow-Up After Cognitive Behavioral Therapy.

There is evidence supporting the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treatment of anxiety in youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), but long-term course of anxiety after treatment and individual predictors of treatment response are unknown. To meet the demands for personalized mental health care, information on the fit between patient and treatment as well as treatment durability is needed. We evaluated change in anxiety symptoms during intervention and 1 year after completion of the treatment, and evaluated predictors of response using an advanced analytical design, with follow-up data from a randomized controlled trial of 22 adolescents (12-17 years) with ASD and 1 or more anxiety disorders. Reduction in anxiety was partially maintained during the year following treatment; greater ASD severity predicted better treatment response. Our finding that brief treatment is associated with sustained gains is promising, given the pervasive and chronic nature of ASD. Implications for the treatment of anxiety in higher functioning adolescents with ASD are considered.

Gender matters: the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol-related consequences.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Identification of risk factors for alcohol-related consequences is an important public health concern. Both gender and social anxiety have been associated with alcohol-related consequences broadly, but it is unknown whether these variables are differentially related to specific types of alcohol-related consequences for American college students. METHODS: In the present study, 573 undergraduate students (M(age) = 19.86 years, SD = 1.40; range 18 to 25; 68.9% female) completed an on-line assessment of social anxiety, alcohol use, and four types of alcohol-related consequences (personal, social, physical, and role). Poisson regressions were run to examine social anxiety, gender, and the interaction between social anxiety and gender as predictors of each type of alcohol-related consequences. RESULTS: After controlling for alcohol use, social anxiety was positively associated with all four types of consequences, and females endorsed higher rates of physical, personal, and role consequences. The interaction between social anxiety and gender was statistically significant only for physical consequences, with social anxiety having a stronger effect for males. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: These findings, which diverge somewhat from those of a prior study with Australian college students, are discussed in the context of a biopsychosocial model of social anxiety and substance use problems. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: This study highlights the importance of further investigating cultural differences in the relationships among social anxiety, gender, and alcohol-related consequences.

Assessment of global functioning in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: utility of the Developmental Disability-Child Global Assessment Scale.

Assessment of global functioning is an important consideration in treatment outcome research; yet, there is little guidance on its evidence-based assessment for children with autism spectrum disorders. This study investigated the utility and validity of clinician-rated global functioning using the Developmental Disability-Child Global Assessment Scale in a sample of higher functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders and comorbid anxiety disorders enrolled in a randomized controlled trial (n = 30). Pretreatment Developmental Disability-Child Global Assessment Scale scores correlated with severity of autism spectrum disorders core symptoms (r = -.388, p = .034), pragmatic communication (r = .407, p = .032), and verbal ability (r = .449, p = .013) and did not correlate with severity of anxiety symptoms or with parent-reported adaptive behavior. Change in Developmental Disability-Child Global Assessment Scale scores during treatment was associated with autism spectrum disorders symptomatic improvement (r = .414, p = .040) and with improved general communication (r = .499, p = .013). Results support the importance of assessing global functioning in addition to symptom change and treatment response in clinical trials.

Understanding the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol use in college students: a meta-analysis.

Many college students use alcohol, and most of these students experience problems related to their use. Emerging research indicates that socially anxious students face heightened risk of experiencing alcohol-related problems, although the extant research on alcohol use and social anxiety in this population has yielded inconsistent findings. This meta-analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol variables in college students. A literature search was used to identify studies on college students that included measures of social anxiety and at least one of the alcohol variables of interest. All analyses were conducted using random effects models. We found that social anxiety was negatively correlated with alcohol use variables (e.g., typical quantity and typical frequency), but significantly positively correlated with alcohol-related problems, coping, conformity, and social motives for alcohol use, and positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies. Several moderators of effect sizes were found to be significant, including methodological factors such as sample ascertainment approach. Given that social anxiety was negatively related to alcohol use but positively related to alcohol-related problems, research is needed to address why individuals high in social anxiety experience more problems as a result of their alcohol use. Avoidance of social situations among socially anxious students should also be taken into account when measuring alcohol use. The primary limitation of this study is the small number of studies available for inclusion in some of the analyses.

Factor structure of the modified Timeline Followback: a measure of alcohol-related consequences.

OBJECTIVE: Knowledge of the types of consequences assessed by a given measure of alcohol-related consequences is important, as it may affect how the scores from that measure relate to individual differences and how the measure is used in treatment. This study was designed to examine the factor structure of the modified Timeline Followback (TLFB). METHOD: Undergraduate students (n = 573; 68.9% female) who drank alcohol at least once in the past 30 days completed an online version of the modified TLFB, a measure of alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences. RESULTS: A confirmatory factor analysis supported the previously proposed four-factor structure of the consequences assessed by the modified TLFB (i.e., personal, social, role functioning, and physical consequences). Internal consistency of the four categories, as assessed by deleted-item odds ratios, was good. Additionally, correlations between subscale scores and measures of alcohol use provided evidence of convergent validity, and intraclass correlations between two administration formats (online vs. in-person) indicated preliminary concurrent validity of the four factors. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, this study found support for the factor structure that was previously proposed by Norberg et al. Both the results of the confirmatory factor analysis and the deleted-item odds ratios indicate that most items fit the model well. Four items, however, could not be included in the model as a result of either low endorsement or poor fit, suggesting that further research on these items is needed.

Sexual assertiveness mediates the effect of social interaction anxiety on sexual victimization risk among college women.

Sexual victimization is prevalent among college women and is associated with adverse psychological consequences. Social anxiety, particularly related to interpersonal interaction, may increase risk of sexual victimization among college women by decreasing sexual assertiveness and decreasing the likelihood of using assertive resistance techniques. This study examined social interaction anxiety as a risk factor for sexual victimization. College women (n=672) completed online measures of social interaction anxiety, sexual assertiveness, and sexual victimization experiences. Social interaction anxiety was significantly positively related to likelihood of experiencing coerced sexual intercourse, and significant indirect effects, via decreased sexual refusal assertiveness, were found for both coerced sexual intercourse and rape. Social anxiety may be an important psychological barrier to assertive resistance during risky sexual situations, and developers of risk reduction programs for college women should consider including methods to help women overcome their social anxiety in order to successfully use assertive resistance techniques.

Measuring social anxiety in college students: a comprehensive evaluation of the psychometric properties of the SPAI-23.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is 1 of the most prevalent psychological disorders, and among college students in particular, social anxiety has been associated with other problems such as substance use problems and increased vulnerability to other psychiatric disorders. The Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory-23 (SPAI-23; Roberson-Nay, Strong, Nay, Beidel, & Turner, 2007) may be a useful, brief measure of problematic social anxiety in college students. Results from 4 studies (total n = 2,436) using the SPAI-23 with college student samples are presented. Scores on the SPAI-23 demonstrated strong convergent validity with other measures of social anxiety and discriminant validity as evidenced by lower correlations with measures of dissimilar constructs. Difference scores on the SPAI-23 also demonstrated adequate test-retest reliability over 5 ½ weeks (r = .72). Exploratory factor analysis suggested a two-factor structure: social anxiety and agoraphobia. Finally, differential item function analyses suggested that the items function similarly in men and women. In conclusion, the SPAI-23 demonstrated strong psychometric properties for use with college students.

Brief report: The assessment of anxiety in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorder.

Anxiety may exacerbate interpersonal difficulties and contribute to secondary behavioral problems in adolescents with High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder (HFASD). This study was conducted to assess the psychometric properties and construct validity of measures of anxiety with a sample (n = 30) of adolescents with HFASD and comorbid anxiety disorders. Results indicate that the measures (CASI-Anxiety Scale; Sukhodolsky et al. 2008; MASC; March 1998) possess acceptable internal consistency, and there is evidence of discriminant validity. Most of the adolescents, however, under-reported problems with anxiety, compared to parent-reported and clinician-derived reports and given they were seeking treatment for anxiety problems. Findings highlight the importance of using multiple raters in clinical practice and consideration of rater discrepancies in clinical research.