Synthetic Vesicles for Sustainable Energy Recycling and Delivery of Building Blocks for Lipid Biosynthesis†.

ATP is a universal energy currency that is essential for life. l-Arginine degradation via deamination is an elegant way to generate ATP in synthetic cells, which is currently limited by a slow l-arginine/l-ornithine exchange. We are now implementing a new antiporter with better kinetics to obtain faster ATP recycling. We use l-arginine-dependent ATP formation for the continuous synthesis and export of glycerol 3-phosphate by including glycerol kinase and the glycerol 3-phosphate/Pi antiporter. Exported glycerol 3-phosphate serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of phospholipids in a second set of vesicles, which forms the basis for the expansion of the cell membrane. We have therefore developed an out-of-equilibrium metabolic network for ATP recycling, which has been coupled to lipid synthesis. This feeder-utilizer system serves as a proof-of-principle for the systematic buildup of synthetic cells, but the vesicles can also be used to study the individual reaction networks in confinement.

Structural and biophysical characterization of the tandem substrate-binding domains of the ABC importer GlnPQ.

The ATP-binding cassette transporter GlnPQ is an essential uptake system that transports glutamine, glutamic acid and asparagine in Gram-positive bacteria. It features two extra-cytoplasmic substrate-binding domains (SBDs) that are linked in tandem to the transmembrane domain of the transporter. The two SBDs differ in their ligand specificities, binding affinities and their distance to the transmembrane domain. Here, we elucidate the effects of the tandem arrangement of the domains on the biochemical, biophysical and structural properties of the protein. For this, we determined the crystal structure of the ligand-free tandem SBD1-2 protein from Lactococcus lactis in the absence of the transporter and compared the tandem to the isolated SBDs. We also used isothermal titration calorimetry to determine the ligand-binding affinity of the SBDs and single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) to relate ligand binding to conformational changes in each of the domains of the tandem. We show that substrate binding and conformational changes are not notably affected by the presence of the adjoining domain in the wild-type protein, and changes only occur when the linker between the domains is shortened. In a proof-of-concept experiment, we combine smFRET with protein-induced fluorescence enhancement (PIFE-FRET) and show that a decrease in SBD linker length is observed as a linear increase in donor-brightness for SBD2 while we can still monitor the conformational states (open/closed) of SBD1. These results demonstrate the feasibility of PIFE-FRET to monitor protein-protein interactions and conformational states simultaneously.

Gating by ionic strength and safety check by cyclic-di-AMP in the ABC transporter OpuA.

(Micro)organisms are exposed to fluctuating environmental conditions, and adaptation to stress is essential for survival. Increased osmolality (hypertonicity) causes outflow of water and loss of turgor and is dangerous if the cell is not capable of rapidly restoring its volume. The osmoregulatory adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter OpuA restores the cell volume by accumulating large amounts of compatible solute. OpuA is gated by ionic strength and inhibited by the second messenger cyclic-di-AMP, a molecule recently shown to affect many cellular processes. Despite the master regulatory role of cyclic-di-AMP, structural and functional insights into how the second messenger regulates (transport) proteins on the molecular level are lacking. Here, we present high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structures of OpuA and in vitro activity assays that show how the osmoregulator OpuA is activated by high ionic strength and how cyclic-di-AMP acts as a backstop to prevent unbridled uptake of compatible solutes.

Conformational and dynamic plasticity in substrate-binding proteins underlies selective transport in ABC importers.

Substrate-binding proteins (SBPs) are associated with ATP-binding cassette importers and switch from an open to a closed conformation upon substrate binding, providing specificity for transport. We investigated the effect of substrates on the conformational dynamics of six SBPs and the impact on transport. Using single-molecule FRET, we reveal an unrecognized diversity of plasticity in SBPs. We show that a unique closed SBP conformation does not exist for transported substrates. Instead, SBPs sample a range of conformations that activate transport. Certain non-transported ligands leave the structure largely unaltered or trigger a conformation distinct from that of transported substrates. Intriguingly, in some cases, similar SBP conformations are formed by both transported and non-transported ligands. In this case, the inability for transport arises from slow opening of the SBP or the selectivity provided by the translocator. Our results reveal the complex interplay between ligand-SBP interactions, SBP conformational dynamics and substrate transport.

Protein Linkers Provide Limits on the Domain Interactions in the ABC Importer GlnPQ and Determine the Rate of Transport.

GlnPQ is an ATP-binding cassette importer with a unique domain organization and intricate transport behavior. The protein has two extracytoplamic substrate-binding domains (SBDs) per membrane subunit, each with different specificity for amino acids and different spacing to the translocator domain. We determined the effect of the length and structure of the linkers, which connect the SBDs to each other and to the membrane-embedded translocator domain, on the transport by GlnPQ. We reveal that varying the linker length impacts transport in a dual manner that depends on the conformational dynamics of the SBD. Varying the linker length not only changes the time for the SBD to find the translocator (docking) but also changes the probability to release the substrate again, thus altering the transport efficiency. On the basis of the experimental data and mathematical modeling, we calculate the docking efficiency as function of linker length and lifetime of the closed conformation. Importantly, not only linker length but also features in the sequence are important for efficient delivery of substrate from SBD to the translocator. We show that the linkers provide a platform for SBD docking and are not merely flexible structures.

Energy Coupling Efficiency in the Type I ABC Transporter GlnPQ.

Solute transport via ATP binding cassette (ABC) importers involves receptor-mediated substrate binding, which is followed by ATP-driven translocation of the substrate across the membrane. How these steps are exactly initiated and coupled, and how much ATP it takes to complete a full transport cycle, are subject of debate. Here, we reconstitute the ABC importer GlnPQ in nanodiscs and in proteoliposomes and determine substrate-(in)dependent ATP hydrolysis and transmembrane transport. We determined the conformational states of the substrate-binding domains (SBDs) by single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer measurements. We find that the basal ATPase activity (ATP hydrolysis in the absence of substrate) is mainly caused by the docking of the closed-unliganded state of the SBDs onto the transporter domain of GlnPQ and that, unlike glutamine, arginine binds both SBDs but does not trigger their closing. Furthermore, comparison of the ATPase activity in nanodiscs with glutamine transport in proteoliposomes shows that the stoichiometry of ATP per substrate is close to two. These findings help understand the mechanism of transport and the energy coupling efficiency in ABC transporters with covalently linked SBDs, which may aid our understanding of Type I ABC importers in general.

Real-Time Conformational Changes and Controlled Orientation of Native Proteins Inside a Protein Nanoreactor.

Protein conformations play crucial roles in most, if not all, biological processes. Here we show that the current carried through a nanopore by ions allows monitoring conformational changes of single and native substrate-binding domains (SBD) of an ATP-Binding Cassette importer in real-time. Comparison with single-molecule Förster Resonance Energy Transfer and ensemble measurements revealed that proteins trapped inside the nanopore have bulk-like properties. Two ligand-free and two ligand-bound conformations of SBD proteins were inferred and their kinetic constants were determined. Remarkably, internalized proteins aligned with the applied voltage bias, and their orientation could be controlled by the addition of a single charge to the protein surface. Nanopores can thus be used to immobilize proteins on a surface with a specific orientation, and will be employed as nanoreactors for single-molecule studies of native proteins. Moreover, nanopores with internal protein adaptors might find further practical applications in multianalyte sensing devices.

Relative Rates of Amino Acid Import via the ABC Transporter GlnPQ Determine the Growth Performance of Lactococcus lactis.

UNLABELLED: The GlnPQ transporter from Lactococcus lactis has the remarkable feature of having two substrate-binding domains (SBDs) fused to the N terminus of the transmembrane domain (TMD), and thus four SBDs are present in the homodimeric complex. Although X-ray structures and ligand binding data are available for both SBDs, little is known of how different amino acids compete with each other for transport via GlnPQ. Here we show GlnPQ has a broader substrate specificity than previously thought, with the ability to take up asparagine, glutamine, and glutamic acid, albeit via different routes and with different affinities. Asparagine and glutamine compete with each other at the level of binding to SBD1 and SBD2 (with differences in dissociation constant), but at the same time SBD1 and SBD2 compete with each other at the level of interaction with the translocator domain (with differences in affinity constant and rate of transport). Although glutamine transport via SBD1 is outcompeted by physiological concentrations of asparagine, SBD2 ensures high rates of import of the essential amino acid glutamine. Taken together, this study demonstrates that even in the presence of competing asparagine concentrations, GlnPQ has a high capacity to transport glutamine, which matches the high needs of the cell for glutamine and glutamate. IMPORTANCE: GlnPQ is an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter for glutamine, glutamic acid, and asparagine. The system is essential in various Gram-positive bacteria, including L. lactis and several pathogens. Here we show how the amino acids compete with each other for binding to the multiple SBDs of GlnPQ and how these SBDs compete with each other for substrate delivery to the transporter. Overall, our results show that GlnPQ has evolved to transport diverse substrates via different paths and to optimally acquire the abundant and essential amino acid glutamine.

Watching conformational dynamics of ABC transporters with single-molecule tools.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters play crucial roles in cellular processes, such as nutrient uptake, drug resistance, cell-volume regulation and others. Despite their importance, all proposed molecular models for transport are based on indirect evidence, i.e. functional interpretation of static crystal structures and ensemble measurements of function and structure. Thus, classical biophysical and biochemical techniques do not readily visualize dynamic structural changes. We recently started to use single-molecule fluorescence techniques to study conformational states and changes of ABC transporters in vitro, in order to observe directly how the different steps during transport are coordinated. This review summarizes our scientific strategy and some of the key experimental advances that allowed the substrate-binding mechanism of prokaryotic ABC importers and the transport cycle to be explored. The conformational states and transitions of ABC-associated substrate-binding domains (SBDs) were visualized with single-molecule FRET, permitting a direct correlation of structural and kinetic information of SBDs. We also delineated the different steps of the transport cycle. Since information in such assays are restricted by proper labelling of proteins with fluorescent dyes, we present a simple approach to increase the amount of protein with FRET information based on non-specific interactions between a dye and the size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) column material used for final purification.

Conformational dynamics in substrate-binding domains influences transport in the ABC importer GlnPQ.

The conformational dynamics in ABC transporters is largely elusive. The ABC importer GlnPQ from Lactococcus lactis has different covalently linked substrate-binding domains (SBDs), thus making it an excellent model system to elucidate the dynamics and role of the SBDs in transport. We demonstrate by single-molecule spectroscopy that the two SBDs intrinsically transit from open to closed ligand-free conformation, and the proteins capture their amino acid ligands via an induced-fit mechanism. High-affinity ligands elicit transitions without changing the closed-state lifetime, whereas low-affinity ligands dramatically shorten it. We show that SBDs in the closed state compete for docking onto the translocator, but remarkably the effect is strongest without ligand. We find that the rate-determining steps depend on the SBD and the amino acid transported. We conclude that the lifetime of the closed conformation controls both SBD docking to the translocator and substrate release.

Functional diversity of tandem substrate-binding domains in ABC transporters from pathogenic bacteria.

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter GlnPQ is an essential uptake system for amino acids in gram-positive pathogens and related nonpathogenic bacteria. The transporter has tandem substrate-binding domains (SBDs) fused to each transmembrane domain, giving rise to four SBDs per functional transporter complex. We have determined the crystal structures and ligand-binding properties of the SBDs of GlnPQ from Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Lactococcus lactis. The tandem SBDs differ in substrate specificity and affinity, allowing cells to efficiently accumulate different amino acids via a single ABC transporter. The combined structural, functional, and thermodynamic analysis revealed the roles of individual residues in determining the substrate affinity. We succeeded in converting a low-affinity SBD into a high-affinity receptor and vice versa. Our data indicate that a small number of residues that reside in the binding pocket constitute the major affinity determinants of the SBDs.

Structure and mode of peptide binding of pheromone receptor PrgZ.

We present the crystal structure of the pheromone receptor protein PrgZ from Enterococcus faecalis in complex with the heptapeptide cCF10 (LVTLVFV), which is used in signaling between conjugative recipient and donor cells. Comparison of PrgZ with homologous oligopeptide-binding proteins (AppA and OppA) explains the high specificity of PrgZ for hydrophobic heptapeptides versus the promiscuity of peptide binding in the homologous proteins.

Cystathionine ß-synthase (CBS) domains 1 and 2 fulfill different roles in ionic strength sensing of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter OpuA.

The cystathionine ß-synthase module of OpuA in conjunction with an anionic membrane surface acts as a sensor of internal ionic strength, which allows the protein to respond to osmotic stress. We now show by chemical modification and cross-linking studies that CBS2-CBS2 interface residues are critical for transport activity and/or ionic regulation of transport, whereas CBS1 serves no functional role. We establish that Cys residues in CBS1, CBS2, and the nucleotide-binding domain are more accessible for cross-linking at high than low ionic strength, indicating that these domains undergo conformational changes when transiting between the active and inactive state. Structural analyses suggest that the cystathionine ß-synthase module is largely unstructured. Moreover, we could substitute CBS1 by a linker and preserve ionic regulation of transport. These data suggest that CBS1 serves as a linker and the structured CBS2-CBS2 interface forms a hinge point for ionic strength-dependent rearrangements that are transmitted to the nucleotide-binding domain and thereby affect translocation activity.

Membrane reconstitution of ABC transporters and assays of translocator function.

In this protocol, we describe a procedure for incorporating ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters into large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) and assays to determine ligand binding and solute translocation by these membrane-reconstituted systems. The reconstitution technique as described has been optimized for ABC transporters but can be readily adapted for other types of transport systems. Purified transporters are inserted into detergent-destabilized preformed liposomes and detergent is subsequently removed by adsorption onto polystyrene beads. Next, Mg-ATP or an ATP-regenerating system is incorporated into the vesicle lumen by one or more cycles of freezing-thawing, followed by extrusion through polycarbonate filters to obtain unilamellar vesicles. Binding and translocation of substrates are measured using isotope-labeled ligands and rapid filtration to separate the proteoliposomes from the surrounding medium. Quantitative information is obtained about dissociation constants (K(d)) for ligand binding, number of binding-sites, transport affinities (K(m)), rates of transport, and the activities of transporter molecules with opposite orientations in the membrane. The full protocol can be completed within 4-5 d.

Ion specificity and ionic strength dependence of the osmoregulatory ABC transporter OpuA.

The ATPase subunit of the osmoregulatory ATP-binding cassette transporter OpuA from Lactococcus lactis has a C-terminal extension, the tandem cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) domain, which constitutes the sensor that allows the transporter to sense and respond to osmotic stress (Biemans-Oldehinkel, E., Mahmood, N. A. B. N., and Poolman, B. (2006) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 103, 10624-10629). C-terminal of the tandem CBS domain is an 18-residue anionic tail (DIPDEDEVEEIEKEEENK). To investigate the ion specificity of the full transporter, we probed the activity of inside-out reconstituted wild-type OpuA and the anionic tail deletion mutant OpuADelta12; these molecules have the tandem CBS domains facing the external medium. At a mole fraction of 40% of anionic lipids in the membrane, the threshold ionic strength for activation of OpuA was approximately 0.15, irrespective of the electrolyte composition of the medium. At equivalent concentrations, bivalent cations (Mg(2+) and Ba(2+)) were more effective in activating OpuA than NH(4)(+), K(+), Na(+), or Li(+), consistent with an ionic strength-based sensing mechanism. Surprisingly, Rb(+) and Cs(+) were potent inhibitors of wild-type OpuA, and 0.1 mM RbCl was sufficient to completely inhibit the transporter even in the presence of 0.2 M KCl. Rb(+) and Cs(+) were no longer inhibitory in OpuADelta12, indicating that the anionic C-terminal tail participates in the formation of a binding site for large alkali metal ions. Compared with OpuADelta12, wild-type OpuA required substantially less potassium ions (the dominant ion under physiological conditions) for activation. Our data lend new support for the contention that the CBS module in OpuA constitutes the ionic strength sensor whose activity is modulated by the C-terminal anionic tail.

Substrate specificity and ionic regulation of GlnPQ from Lactococcus lactis. An ATP-binding cassette transporter with four extracytoplasmic substrate-binding domains.

We report on the functional characterization of GlnPQ, an ATP-binding cassette transporter with four extracytoplasmic substrate-binding domains. The first predicted transmembrane helix of GlnP was cleaved off in the mature protein and most likely serves as the signal sequence for the extracytoplasmic substrate-binding domains. Deletion analysis showed that the substrate-binding domain, in the primary sequence of GlnP nearest to the translocator domain, is used as the receptor that delivers the substrate to the translocator. Membrane reconstitution of the detergent-solubilized and purified GlnPQ complex yielded proteoliposomes that transported glutamine and glutamic acid at the expense of ATP. The transport activity of GlnPQ increased with lumenal salt concentration and internal pH, but the mechanism of ionic activation of the transporter is distinct from that of other osmoregulatory ATP-binding cassette transporters and does not depend on the presence of anionic lipids. The regulation of GlnPQ conforms to an electrostatic switch in which protein domain(s) and low molecular weight electrolytes participate.

The first cytoplasmic loop of the mannitol permease from Escherichia coli is accessible for sulfhydryl reagents from the periplasmic side of the membrane.

The mannitol permease (EII(Mtl)) from Escherichia coli couples mannitol transport to phosphorylation of the substrate. Renewed topology prediction of the membrane-embedded C domain suggested that EII(Mtl) contains more membrane-embedded segments than the six proposed previously on the basis of a PhoA fusion study. Cysteine accessibility was used to confirm this notion. Since cysteine 384 in the cytoplasmic B domain is crucial for the phosphorylation activity of EII(Mtl), all cysteine mutants contained this activity-linked cysteine residue in addition to those introduced for probing the membrane topology of the protein. To distinguish between the activity-linked cysteine and the probed cysteine, either trypsin was used to specifically digest the two cytoplasmic domains (A and B), thereby removing Cys384, or Cys384 was protected by phosphorylation from alkylation by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). Our data show that upon phosphorylation EII(Mtl) undergoes major conformational changes, whereby residues in the putative first cytoplasmic loop become accessible to NEM. Other residues in this loop were accessible to NEM in intact cells and inside-out membrane vesicles, but cysteine residues at these positions only reacted with the membrane-impermeable sulfhydryl reagent from the periplasmic side of the protein. These and other results suggest that the predicted loop between TM2 and TM3 may fold back into the membrane and form part of the translocation path.

Lactococcus lactis uses MscL as its principal mechanosensitive channel.

The functions of the mechanosensitive channels from Lactococcus lactis were determined by biochemical, physiological, and electrophysiological methods. Patch-clamp studies showed that the genes yncB and mscL encode MscS and MscL-like channels, respectively, when expressed in Escherichia coli or if the gene products were purified and reconstituted in proteoliposomes. However, unless yncB was expressed in trans, wild type membranes of L. lactis displayed only MscL activity. Membranes prepared from an mscL disruption mutant did not show any mechanosensitive channel activity, irrespective of whether the cells had been grown on low or high osmolarity medium. In osmotic downshift assays, wild type cells survived and retained 20% of the glycine betaine internalized under external high salt conditions. On the other hand, the mscL disruption mutant retained 40% of internalized glycine betaine and was significantly compromised in its survival upon osmotic downshifts. The data strongly suggest that L. lactis uses MscL as the main mechanosensitive solute release system to protect the cells under conditions of osmotic downshift.

Mapping of the dimer interface of the Escherichia coli mannitol permease by cysteine cross-linking.

A cysteine cross-linking approach was used to identify residues at the dimer interface of the Escherichia coli mannitol permease. This transport protein comprises two cytoplasmic domains and one membrane-embedded C domain per monomer, of which the latter provides the dimer contacts. A series of single-cysteine His-tagged C domains present in the native membrane were subjected to Cu(II)-(1,10-phenanthroline)(3)-catalyzed disulfide formation or cysteine cross-linking with dimaleimides of different length. The engineered cysteines were at the borders of the predicted membrane-spanning alpha-helices. Two residues were found to be located in close proximity of each other and capable of forming a disulfide, while four other locations formed cross-links with the longer dimaleimides. Solubilization of the membranes did only influence the cross-linking behavior at one position (Cys(73)). Mannitol binding only effected the cross-linking of a cysteine at the border of the third transmembrane helix (Cys(134)), indicating that substrate binding does not lead to large rearrangements in the helix packing or to dissociation of the dimer. Upon mannitol binding, the Cys(134) becomes more exposed but the residue is no longer capable of forming a stable disulfide in the dimeric IIC domain. In combination with the recently obtained projection structure of the IIC domain in two-dimensional crystals, a first proposal is made for alpha-helix packing in the mannitol permease.