Honey bee colonies act as reservoirs for two Spiroplasma facultative symbionts and incur complex, multiyear infection dynamics.

Two species of Spiroplasma (Mollicutes) bacteria were isolated from and described as pathogens of the European honey bee, Apis mellifera, ~30 years ago but recent information on them is lacking despite global concern to understand bee population declines. Here we provide a comprehensive survey for the prevalence of these two Spiroplasma species in current populations of honey bees using improved molecular diagnostic techniques to assay multiyear colony samples from North America (U.S.A.) and South America (Brazil). Significant annual and seasonal fluctuations of Spiroplasma apis and Spiroplasma melliferum prevalence in colonies from the U.S.A. (n = 616) and Brazil (n = 139) occurred during surveys from 2011 through 2013. Overall, 33% of U.S.A. colonies and 54% of Brazil colonies were infected by Spiroplasma spp., where S. melliferum predominated over S. apis in both countries (25% vs. 14% and 44% vs. 38% frequency, respectively). Colonies were co-infected by both species more frequently than expected in both countries and at a much higher rate in Brazil (52%) compared to the U.S.A. (16.5%). U.S.A. samples showed that both species were prevalent not only during spring, as expected from prior research, but also during other seasons. These findings demonstrate that the model of honey bee spiroplasmas as springtime-restricted pathogens needs to be broadened and their role as occasional pathogens considered in current contexts.

DYNAMICS OF SOMATIC CELLLINEAGE COMPETITION IN CHIMERAS OF Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus (CNIDARIA: HYDROZOA) / Dinámica de competencia entre líneas celulares somáticas en quimeras de Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa)

Sessile colonial invertebrates often fuse with conspecifics to form chimeras. Chimerism represents an unequivocal instance of withinindividual selection where genetically different celllineages compete for representation in the somatic and gametic pools. We analyzed temporal and spatial variations in somatic celllineage composition of laboratoryestablished chimeras of the hydroid Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Using three clones with different allotypic specificities (i.e., two rejecting one another but fusing with a third one), we established two classes of twoway chimeras, a single threeway chimera class, and an incompatible interaction as control. Chimeras were sampled at five time intervals for a year. Celllineages in samples were identified by polyp fusibility assays against tester colonies of known fusibility. The cell lineages composing the chimeras showed a differential competitive ability, with one of them representing close to 80% by the end of the study. Rare celllineages stabilized at low frequencies but preserved their ability to gain somatic representation and to colonize distant parts of the chimera. This behavior characterizes cell parasites. As a consequence of the reproductive plasticity of most colonial invertebrates, celllineage variability may be transmitted to the offspring both sexually and asexually. Successful somatic competitors are expected to be preferentially transmitted asexually, whereas cell parasites would be preferentially transmitted sexually.

Los invertebrados coloniales y sésiles con frecuencia se fusionan con conespecíficos para formar quimeras. Estas quimeras son un ejemplo de selección natural actuando al interior del individuo en donde células genéticamente distintas compiten por acceso tanto a la línea somática como a la germinal. En este estudio se analizaron las variaciones temporal y espacial de linajes celulares somáticos en quimeras establecidas en el laboratorio del hidroide colonial Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Usando tres clones con distintas especificidades alotípicas (dos de ellas se rechazaban pero ambas se fusionaban a una tercera), se establecieron dos clases de biquimeras, una triquimera y una interacción incompatible como control. Muestras de tejido de quimeras se obtuvieron en cinco intervalos de tiempo durante 50 semanas. La identidad celular de cada muestra se determinó por ensayos de fusibilidad de pólipos con colonias estándar de fusibilidad conocida. Los distintos linajes celulares de cada quimera mostraron una habilidad competitiva diferencial, con una de ellas representando cerca del 80% de las quimeras hacia el final del estudio. Las líneas celulares con menor representación se estabilizaron a bajas frecuencias pero mantuvieron la capacidad de aumentar en frecuencia y de colonizar partes distantes en la quimera. Este comportamiento caracteriza los parásitos celulares. Como consecuencia de la plasticidad reproductiva de la mayoría de invertebrados coloniales, la variabilidad de los linajes celulares puede ser trasmitida a la descendencia tanto sexualmente como asexualmente. Linajes celulares somáticos con alta capacidad competitiva serían heredados asexualmente, mientras que los linajes celulares parásitos se transmitirían preferencialmente por reproducción sexual.