The human skeletal muscle Na channel mutation R669H associated with hypokalemic periodic paralysis enhances slow inactivation.

Missense mutations of the human skeletal muscle voltage-gated Na channel (hSkM1) underlie a variety of diseases, including hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HyperPP), paramyotonia congenita, and potassium-aggravated myotonia. Another disorder of sarcolemmal excitability, hypokalemic periodic paralysis (HypoPP), which is usually caused by missense mutations of the S4 voltage sensors of the L-type Ca channel, was associated recently in one family with a mutation in the outermost arginine of the IIS4 voltage sensor (R669H) of hSkM1 (Bulman et al., 1999). Intriguingly, an arginine-to-histidine mutation at the homologous position in the L-type Ca(2+) channel (R528H) is a common cause of HypoPP. We have studied the gating properties of the hSkM1-R669H mutant Na channel experimentally in human embryonic kidney cells and found that it has no significant effects on activation or fast inactivation but does cause an enhancement of slow inactivation. R669H channels exhibit an approximately 10 mV hyperpolarized shift in the voltage dependence of slow inactivation and a twofold to fivefold prolongation of recovery after prolonged depolarization. In contrast, slow inactivation is often disrupted in HyperPP-associated Na channel mutants. These results demonstrate that, in R669H-associated HypoPP, enhanced slow inactivation does not preclude, and may contribute to, prolonged attacks of weakness and add support to previous evidence implicating the IIS4 voltage sensor in slow-inactivation gating.

A novel sodium channel mutation in a family with hypokalemic periodic paralysis.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the cause of hypokalemic periodic paralysis (HOKPP) in a family whose disease is not caused by a mutation in the dihydropyridine-sensitive (DHP) receptor alpha1-subunit gene (CACNA1S). BACKGROUND: Hypokalemic periodic paralysis is primarily caused by mutations within CACNA1S. Genetic heterogeneity for HOKPP has been reported, but no other locus has been identified. METHODS: Single-stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis and PCR direct sequencing were used to screen the skeletal muscle alpha1-sodium channel gene (SCN4A) for a mutation in our family. RESULTS: SSCP analysis showed an abnormally migrating conformer in exon 12. Direct sequencing of the conformer showed a guanine to adenine transition at position 2006 in the cDNA sequence; this results in an amino acid substitution of a highly conserved arginine (Arg) to histidine (His) at position 669. This sequence alteration segregated only with the affected members of the kindred and was not found in a panel of 100 DNA samples from healthy controls. The amino acid substitution alters the outermost positive charge in the membrane spanning segment DII/S4, which is involved in voltage sensing. CONCLUSIONS: The first arginine in DII/S4 and in DIV/S4 within the skeletal muscle sodium channel and the L-type calcium channel genie CACNA1S appear to be critical for normal function. In all four cases, Arg to His mutations result in a disease phenotype. The identification of a mutation within the skeletal muscle sodium channel resulting in hypokalemic periodic paralysis represents a novel finding.

Characterization of microsomal GST-II by western blot and identification of a novel LTC4 isomer.

Protein expression of microsomal GST-II and LTC4 synthase was analyzed by Western blot. Correlation between a 17 kDa band and LTC4 formation was observed for both enzymes. The expression of microsomal GST-II was several fold more efficient than the expression of LTC4 synthase. In addition to catalyzing the biosynthesis of LTC4, microsomal GST-II also produces another product, which has been subjected to mass spectrometric analysis. This analysis demonstrates that the novel product is an isomer of LTC4.

Production of leukotriene C4 in different human tissues is attributable to distinct membrane bound biosynthetic enzymes.

Microsomal glutathione S-transferase-II (GST-II) has recently been discovered and characterized as a member of the 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP)/5(S)-hydroxy-6(R)-S-glutathionyl-7,9-trans-11, 14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (LTC4) synthase gene family, which also includes microsomal glutathione S-transferase-I (GST-I) as a distant member of this gene family. This new enzyme is unique as it is the only member of this family capable of efficiently conjugating reduced glutathione to both 5,6-oxido-7,9,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (LTA4) and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. Although microsomal GST-II has been demonstrated to display both general glutathione S-transferase (GST) and specific LTC4 synthase activities, its biological function remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the physiological location of microsomal GST-II as well as the relative importance of this enzyme versus LTC4 synthase for the production of LTC4 in various human tissues and cells that have been previously demonstrated to possess LTC4 synthase activity. As determined by Western blot, microsomal GST-II was predominantly expressed in human liver microsomes, human endothelial cell membranes, and sparsely detected in human lung membranes. In contrast, LTC4 synthase was prevalent in human lung membranes, human platelet homogenates, and human kidney tissue. Concomitant to the formation of LTC4, microsomal GST-II also produces a new metabolite of LTA4, a postulated LTC4 isomer. This isomer was used to distinguish between microsomal GST-II and LTC4 synthase activities involved in the biosynthesis of LTC4. Based on the relative production of LTC4 to the LTC4 isomer, microsomal GST-II was demonstrated to be the principal enzyme responsible for LTC4 production in human liver microsomes and human endothelial cells and played a minor role in the formation of LTC4 in human lung membranes. In comparison, LTC4 synthase was the main enzyme capable of catalyzing the conjugation of reduced glutathione to LTA4 in human lung membranes and human platelet homogenates. Therefore, microsomal GST-II appears to be an integral component in the detoxification of biological systems due to its marked presence in human liver, in accordance with its known GST activity. Microsomal GST-II, however, may also be pivotal for cysteinyl leukotriene formation in endothelial cells, and this could change our current understanding of the regulation of leukotriene biosynthesis in inflammatory disorders such as asthma.

Regulation of leukotriene-biosynthetic enzymes during differentiation of myelocytic HL-60 cells to eosinophilic or neutrophilic cells.

Leukotrienes (LTs) are potent mediators of bronchial inflammation and are predominantly produced by myeloid cells. As myelocytic cells differentiate towards either eosinophils or neutrophils, the profile of leukotrienes they produce upon stimulation diverges. Eosinophils produce mainly cysteinyl leukotrienes whereas neutrophils predominantly synthesize 5(S), 12(R)-dihydroxy-6,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (LTB delta). The mechanism by which this change in leukotriene composition occurs is unknown. In this study, we investigated the control of leukotriene biosynthetic enzymes during myeloid cell differentiation. Western-blot analyses of myelocytic leukemia cell lines, HL-60#7 and HL-60, differentiated towards eosinophilic or neutrophilic cell types, respectively, demonstrated that as myelocytic cells differentiate towards eosinophils or neutrophils, the protein levels of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) remain constant, whereas 5-lipoxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP) levels are simultaneously elevated. As myelocytic cells become more eosinophil-like, 5(S)-hydroxy- 6(R)-S-glutathionyl-7,9-trans-11, 14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (LTC delta) synthase activity and expression of both the protein and messenger RNA in the cells are dramatically increased (approximately 75-fold), while the LTC delta synthase level and activity in neutrophil-like cells remain constant at very low levels. In contrast, in neutrophilic cells, the amount of 5,6-oxido-7,9,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (LTA delta) hydrolase was elevated approximately 100-fold greater than the increase in LTA delta hydrolase from eosinophilic cells. These results indicate that as a myeloid cell differentiates towards a granulocyte, similar mechanisms of regulation may be applied to the leukotriene biosynthetic pathway up to the point at which the pathway diverges. At the stage in the leukotriene biosynthetic pathway where LTA delta may be converted to either LTC delta or to LTB delta, specific regulators of transcription may become activated as a myelocytic cell differentiates, thereby causing increased LTA delta hydrolase or LTC delta synthase expression.

Differential activation of leukotriene biosynthesis by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-5 in an eosinophilic substrain of HL-60 cells.

Cytokines can stimulate eosinophils to produce cysteinyl leukotrienes (LTs) in the lung that provoke tissue destruction associated with asthma. Priming of an eosinophilic substrain of HL-60 cells (HL-60#7) with recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (rhGM-CSF) before ionophore challenge was found to produce an apparent 45% increase in total LT production in a dose-dependent manner (ED50 = 150 pmol/L) that could be accounted for by a decrease in the time required for maximal formation of LTs. GM-CSF had no effect on the kinetic parameters of LTC4 synthase and therefore probably acts upstream of this catalytic event. Incubation with interleukin-5 (IL-5), however, had no effect on LT biosynthesis. This differential priming ability was not a consequence of different receptor populations or differences in the affinity or stability of the ligand-receptor complexes of GM-CSF and IL-5. GM-CSF and IL-5 each displayed similar populations of high-affinity binding sites and neither GM-CSF nor IL-5 were able to cross-compete for the other's receptor binding sites. Analysis of phosphotyrosine patterns suggest that IL-5 is incapable of transducing a signal in eosinophilic HL-60#7 cells even though IL-5 and GM-CSF receptors mediate signal transduction via a common beta-chain component that is also necessary for high-affinity binding. Overall, this unique system may permit the dissection of distinct events responsible for specific intracellular signals transduced separately by GM-CSF or IL-5.

Photoaffinity labelling and radiation inactivation of the leukotriene B4 receptor in human myeloid cells.

The leukotriene (LT) B4 receptor has been characterized in the human monocyte leukemia THP-1 cell line. Scatchard analysis of [3H]LTB4 specific binding to THP-1 cell membranes revealed a single population of high affinity (KD = 56 pM) and saturable (2000 receptors/cell) binding sites. [3H]LTB4 specific binding was enhanced by divalent cations, but inhibited by both monovalent cations and a non-hydrolysable GTP analogue. Treatment with GTP analogue resulted in a concentration-dependent reduction in the number of high affinity binding sites, accompanied by the appearance of an equal number of binding sites of lower affinity (KD = 1250 pM). In contrast, Scatchard analysis with human polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) membranes consistently revealed two populations of LTB4 receptors (KD = 48 pM and 270 pM). Treatment with GTP analogue, however, converted all these detectable binding sites to the lower affinity state. These data suggest that the LTB4 receptor in both THP-1 cell and PMN membranes exists in interconverting affinity states modulated by G-protein coupling. The similarity between the LTB4 receptors present in these two cell types was also substantiated by target-size analysis by radiation inactivation, which estimated a comparable molecular mass of 56.5 kDa and 52.8 kDa for the THP-1 cell and PMN LTB4 receptors, respectively. Finally, the presence of a single LTB4 receptor in PMN was demonstrated by direct photolabelling. Irradiation of frozen [3H]LTB4 equilibrium binding assay incubations resulted in complete photolysis of [3H]LTB4. Subsequent resolution of the tritiated PMN proteins by sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) revealed one major radioactive peak migrating with an apparent molecular weight of 61,000. This peak was identified as the LTB4 receptor since radiolabelling could be completely inhibited by the presence of excess unlabelled LTB4 or the LTB4-receptor antagonist, L-662,328. Photolabelling was also partially inhibited by pretreatment with GTP analogue, consistent with G-protein uncoupling reagents reducing receptor affinity without complete inhibition. In summary, the LTB4 receptor identified in human myeloid cells is a G-protein coupled receptor with interconvertible high and low affinity states, having a molecular mass of 53-61 kDa.