Involvement of interleukin-1 in lipopolysaccaride-induced microglial activation and learning and memory deficits.

We have developed an animal model of learning and memory impairment associated with activation of microglia in the mouse brain. Injection of lipopolysaccharide into the CA1 region of the mouse hippocampus resulted in an increased production of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1ß. Immunostaining for interleukin-1ß revealed an increase in the signal at 6 hr after lipopolysaccharide injection. Immunopositive cells for interleukin-1ß were colocalized with those immunopositive for CD11b. When subacute lipopolysaccharide treatment (20 µg/2 µl/injection, bilaterally for 5 consecutive days) was performed, long-term activation of microglia and learning and memory deficits as evaluated using a step-through passive avoidance test were observed in the wild-type mice. Gene expression of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor NR1 and NR2A subunits was also decreased by the lipopolysaccharide treatment. In contrast, activation of microglia and the associated behavioral deficits were not observed in mice lacking interleukin-1α and -1ß following the subacute lipopolysaccharide treatment, together with little change in the gene expression of NR1 and NR2A subunits. However, the subacute lipopolysaccharide treatment produced almost similar changes in those parameters in the tumor necrosis factor-α knockout mice as in the wild-type animals. The injection of interleukin-1ß neutralizing antibody with lipopolysaccharide for 5 consecutive days resulted in the improvement of lipopolysaccharide-induced learning and memory deficits. These findings suggest that the expression of interleukin-1 plays an important role in lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of microglia and the associated functional deficits in learning and memory.

Pathology of Tnf-deficient mice infected with Plasmodium chabaudi adami 408XZ.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (Tnf) plays a pleiotropic role in murine malaria. Some investigations have correlated Tnf with hypothermia, hyperlactatemia, hypoglycemia, and a suppression of the erythropoietic response, although others have not. In this study, we have evaluated parasitemia, survival rate and several pathological features in C57BL/6JTnf(-/-) and C57BL/6JTnf(+/+) mice after infection with Plasmodium chabaudi adami 408XZ. Compared to the C57BL/6JTnf(+/+) mice, C57BL/6JTnf(-/-) mice showed increased parasitemia and decreased survival rate, whereas blood glucose, blood lactate and body weight were not significantly different. However, C57BL/6JTnf(-/-) mice suffered significantly more from severe anemia and hypothermia than C57BL/6JTnf(+/+) mice. These results suggest that Tnf is an important mediator of parasite control, but not of anemia development. We hypothesize that the high mortality observed in the Tnf knock-out mice is due to increased anemia and pathology as a direct result of increased levels of parasitemia.

TNF-alpha mediates the development of anaemia in a murine Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection, but not the anaemia associated with a murine Trypanosoma congolense infection.

Development of anaemia in inflammatory diseases is cytokine-mediated. Specifically, the levels of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), produced by activated macrophages, are correlated with severity of disease and anaemia in infections and chronic disease. In African trypanosomiasis, anaemia develops very early in infection around the time when parasites become detectable in the blood. Since the anaemia persists after the first waves of parasitaemia when low numbers of trypanosomes are circulating in the blood, it is generally assumed that anaemia is not directly induced by a parasite factor, but might be cytokine-mediated, as in other cases of anaemia accompanying inflammation. To clarify the role of TNF-alpha in the development of anaemia, blood parameters of wild type (TNF-alpha+/+), TNF-alpha-null (TNF-alpha-/-) and TNF-alpha-hemizygous (TNF-alpha-/+) trypanotolerant mice were compared during infections with the cattle parasite Trypanosoma congolense. No differences in PCV, erythrocyte numbers or haemoglobin were observed between TNF-alpha-deficient and wild type mice, suggesting that the decrease in erythrocytes was not mediated by TNF-alpha. Erythropoetin (EPO) levels increased during infection and no significant differences in EPO levels were observed between the three mouse strains. In contrast, during an infection with the human pathogen Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the number of red blood cells in TNF-alpha-deficient mice remained significantly higher than in the wild type mice. These data suggest that more than one mechanism promotes the development of anaemia associated with trypanosomiasis.

Mutational analysis of TGF-beta type II receptor, Smad2, Smad3, Smad4, Smad6 and Smad7 genes in colorectal cancer.

Transforming growth factor-beta(TGF-beta) is known to play an important role in controlling embryonal development, cell proliferation and homeostasis. The purpose of this study is to elucidate the involvement of the TGF-beta pathway in colorectal carcinogenesis. DNA was extracted from 100 patients with colorectal cancer. Then, all coding regions of the TGF-beta type II receptor (TRII) and the genes for Smad2, Smad3, Smad4, Smad6, and Smad7 were analyzed by PCR-SSCP and direct sequencing. Also, a LOH analysis of 18q21, where the Smad2 and Smad4 genes are located, was performed. We detected 11 cases of frameshift mutation in the TRII gene (11%) and 5 cases of point mutations in the Smad4 gene (5.0%); LOH at 18q21 was detected with 33% frequency. No abnormalities were found in the genes for Smad2, Smad3, Smad6, and Smad7. These results suggest that the abnormalities of TRII and Smad4 play an important role inhibiting TGF-beta signaling in colorectal carcinogenesis.

A quantitative trait locus that accounts for glucose intolerance maps to chromosome 8 in hereditary obese KK-A(y) mice.

KK and KK-A(y) mice serve as animal models of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus with moderate obesity. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis was performed to identify gene loci that account for fasting hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance and plasma insulin in 91 F(2) females of a C57BL/6JxKK-A(y) intercross. For glucose intolerance, a significant QTL was identified on chromosome 8, with a maximum lod score of 5.6. This locus had strong influence on the late phase of the intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT), suggesting that the locus may have role in glucose clearance rather than in mere hyperglycemia. In addition, three suggestive QTLs were identified on chromosomes 1 (fasting glucose), 3 (fasting insulin) and 4, (blood glucose at 120 min during IPGTT, and glucose intolerance).

Genetic analysis of inferior nurturing ability in RR mice.

Females of the inbred mouse RR strain have a limited ability to nurture their offspring, and frequently the young die during rearing. Quantitative trait locus analysis was carried out on the F2 progeny produced from a genetic cross between RR and KK, a strain of normal nurturing ability, to elucidate the putative genetic basis governing certain aspects of the inferior nurturing ability in the RR strain. One hundred and ninety-two F2 female mice were mated with C57BL/6J males. After the number of newborns was adjusted to six per dam, nurturing ability was evaluated on the basis of litter weight at days 7, 12 and 21 after parturition. The results showed that 147 of the 192 F2 dams were able to rear all six pups, although the litter weight varied considerably among litters. Significant evidence for linkage was identified on chromosome 5 near the microsatellite marker of D5Mit161 for litter weight at 12 days after parturition. The R allele (RR strain) at this locus was recessive to the K allele (KK strain), and reduced the litter weight. It is suggested that this locus is one of the heritable components that determine the inferior nurturing ability of RR mice.

Effect of 6-hydroxydopamine on host resistance against Listeria monocytogenes infection.

Recent studies have shown that immunocompetent cells bear receptors of neuropeptides and neurotransmitters and that these ligands play roles in the immune response. In this study, the role of the sympathetic nervous system in host resistance against Listeria monocytogenes infection was investigated in mice pretreated with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), which destroys sympathetic nerve termini. The norepinephrine contents of the plasma and spleens were significantly lower in 6-OHDA-treated mice than in vehicle-treated mice. The 50% lethal dose of L. monocytogenes was about 20 times higher for 6-OHDA-treated mice than for vehicle-treated mice. Chemical sympathectomy by 6-OHDA upregulated interleukin-12 (IL-12) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production in enriched dendritic cell cultures and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and TNF-alpha production in spleen cell cultures, whereas chemical sympathectomy had no apparent effect on phagocytic activities, listericidal activities, and nitric oxide production in peritoneal exudate cells and splenic macrophages. Augmentation of host resistance against L. monocytogenes infection by 6-OHDA was abrogated in IFN-gamma(-/-) or TNF-alpha(-/-) mice, suggesting that upregulation of IFN-gamma, IL-12, and TNF-alpha production may be involved in 6-OHDA-mediated augmentation of antilisterial resistance. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of spleen cells immune to L. monocytogenes from 6-OHDA-treated mice resulted in untreated naive recipients that had a high level of resistance against L. monocytogenes infection. These results suggest that the sympathetic nervous system may modulate host resistance against L. monocytogenes infection through regulation of production of IFN-gamma, IL-12, and TNF-alpha, which are critical in antilisterial resistance.

Overexpression of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein N-terminal domain in transgenic mice inhibits T cell proliferative responses via TCR signaling without affecting cytoskeletal rearrangements.

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) is an X-linked recessive disorder characterized by thrombocytopenia with small platelets, severe eczema, and recurrent infections due to defects in the immune system. The disease arises from mutations in the gene encoding the WAS protein (WASP), which plays a role as an adaptor molecule in signal transduction accompanied by cytoskeletal rearrangement in T cells. To investigate the functional domain of WASP, we developed transgenic mice overexpressing the WASP N-terminal region (exon 1-5) including the Ena/VASP homology 1 (pleckstrin homology/WASP homology 1) domain, in which the majority of mutations in WAS patients have been observed. WASP transgenic mice develop and grow normally under the specific pathogen-free environment, and showed normal lymphocyte development. However, proliferative responses and cytokine production induced by TCR stimulation were strongly inhibited in transgenic mice, whereas Ag receptor capping and actin polymerization were normal. These findings suggest that overexpressed Ena/VASP homology 1 (pleckstrin homology/WASP homology 1) domain of WASP inhibits the signaling from TCR without coupling of cytoskeletal rearrangement. WASP transgenic mice shown here could be valuable tools for further understanding the WASP-mediated processes.

Susceptibility of tumour necrosis factor-alpha genetically deficient mice to Trypanosoma congolense infection.

The TNF-alpha gene on mouse chromosome MMU17 is among the candidates for the trypanosomosis resistance QTL Tir1. Tir1 has the largest effect of those loci so far detected which influence degree of resistance to murine trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma congolense infection. We therefore studied the survival to 180 days after challenge with T. congolense of mice that were homozygous and hemizygous with respect to a disruption of the TNF-alpha gene on a > 99% C57BL/6 (resistant) background. We also examined the responses of TNF-alpha hemizygous mice produced by crossing the deletion line with mice of the C57BL/6J strain, and with mice of the susceptible A/J strain. Mice lacking a functional TNF-alpha gene were shown to be highly susceptible to challenge with T. congolense with a median survival time of 37 days. This was comparable to 71 days for control wild-type mice, and 61 and 111 days for mice of the susceptible A/J and resistant C57BL/6J strains, respectively. In mice of the deletion line, the C57BL/6 TNF-alpha allele tended to be dominant to the TNF knockout in terms of resistance. We conclude that TNF-alpha plays an important role in resistance to the effects of T. congolense infection in mice.

[Intermittent administration of 5-FU and isovorin to patients with advanced and recurrent colon cancer].

We attempted a new regimen of intermittent administration of 5-FU and low-dose Isovorin (F.I) to four patients with advanced and recurrent colon cancer. A partial response (PR) was achieved in two of four patients who had evaluable lesions for this treatment. We observed few side effects among these patients. Only one patient among four showed grade 1 neuropathy after two administrations of this chemotherapy. However, after a two-week pause in administration, the neuropathy disappeared and we could continue the therapy. This patient with multiple liver metastases achieved a partial response. Other patients had no side effects such as bone marrow suppression or digestive symptoms. This intermittent F.I treatment might be an effective and promising therapy with few side effects even for patients with poorer conditions.

[Clinical experience of intermittent administration of 5-FU and CDDP to patients with advanced and recurrent gastric cancer].

We administered 5-FU and CDDP (FP) intermittently to four patients with advanced and recurrent gastric cancer. A minor response (MR) and partial response (PR) were achieved in two of four patients who had evaluable lesions for this treatment, and few side effects were observed. Only one patient among six showed grade 2 leucocytopenia after 15 administrations of this chemotherapy, when she had attained a partial response in a lung metastasis. The other patients had no side effects such as bone marrow suppression or digestive symptoms. This intermittent FP treatment may be an effective and promising therapy with few side effects even for the patients with serious conditions.

Lipopolysaccharide induction of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase is mediated dominantly by an IFN-gamma-independent mechanism.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a rate-limiting enzyme in the L-tryptophan-kynurenine pathway, which converts an essential amino acid, L-tryptophan, to N-formylkynurenine. It has been speculated that IFN-gamma is a dominant IDO inducer in vivo. The present study used IFN-gamma or TNF-alpha gene-disrupted mice and IFN-gamma antibody-treated mice to demonstrate that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced systemic IDO is largely dependent on TNF-alpha rather than IFN-gamma. IFN-gamma-independent IDO induction was also demonstrated in vitro with LPS-stimulated monocytic THP-1 cells. These findings clearly indicate that there is an IFN-gamma-independent mechanism of IDO induction in addition to the IFN-gamma-dependent mechanism.

Increased expression of UDP-galactose transporter messenger RNA in human colon cancer tissues and its implication in synthesis of Thomsen-Friedenreich antigen and sialyl Lewis A/X determinants.

A series of human nucleotide sugar transporters of the Golgi apparatus was recently cloned, including the transporters for UDP-galactose (UDP-Gal), UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) and CMP-sialic acid (CMP-SA). We have examined the mRNA expression of these three transporters in human colon cancer tissues by reverse transcription-PCR analysis and compared it with that in nonmalignant colonic mucosa prepared from the same patients. The amount of mRNA for UDP-Gal transporter was significantly increased in colon cancer tissues compared with nonmalignant mucosa tissues (P = 0.035; n = 20). The increase was more prominent in patients with advanced colorectal cancer of Dukes' stages C and D, in which the amount of UDP-Gal transporter mRNA in cancer tissues showed on average about a 3.6-fold increase over the paired nonmalignant mucosa (statistically significant at P = 0.004; n = 14). The mRNA content of the other two transporters showed no significant difference between the paired cancer and normal tissues. When UDP-Gal transporter cDNA was stably transfected to cultured human colon cancer cells, the expression of Thomsen-Friedenreich (TF) antigen and of sialyl Lewis A (NeuAcalpha2-->3Galbeta1-->3[Fucalpha1-->4]GlcNAcbeta1-->R) and sialyl Lewis X (NeuAcalpha2-->3Galbeta1-->4[Fucalpha1-->3]GlcNAcbeta1-->R) determinants was significantly induced on transfectant cells, which resulted in markedly enhanced cell adhesion to vascular E-selectin. These findings suggest that the increase of UDP-Gal transporter mRNA is involved in the enhanced expression of cancer-associated carbohydrate determinants such as TF and sialyl Lewis A/X antigens in colon cancers.

Do the kinetics of peripheral muscle oxygenation reflect systemic oxygen intake?

To examine whether the kinetics of local muscle oxygenation reflect systemic oxygen intake, we measured the kinetics of local muscle oxygenation and systemic oxygen consumption (VO2). This study included 16 healthy males who performed an exercise tolerance test on a bicycle ergometer. During the exercise test, expiratory gas analysis was performed with an expiratory gas analyzer, and the kinetics of vastus lateralis muscle oxygenation were determined by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Oxygenated hemoglobin (OxyHb) and tissue blood oxygen saturation (StO2) gradually decreased during the exercise test, while deoxygenated hemoglobin (DeoxyHb) gradually increased. We examined correlations between the mean values of these parameters, which were calculated by time-integrating the values obtained using NIRS and dividing them by the integral time, and VO2. There was a marked positive correlation between DeoxyHb and VO2 (r = 0.893-0.986), and a marked negative correlation between StO2 and VO2 (r = 0.859-0.995). There was a negative correlation between VO2 and OxyHb (r = 0.726-0.978), and no correlation between TotalHb and VO2. These results suggest that the kinetics of peripheral muscle oxygenation reflect systemic VO2.

Computer-assisted complete three-dimensional reconstruction of the mammary ductal/lobular systems: implications of ductal anastomoses for breast-conserving surgery.

BACKGROUND: The intraductal spread of breast carcinoma can occur along the mammary ductal/lobular systems (MDLS) with no invasion of tissues. Because ductal anastomoses in the MDLS are considered to be a possible risk factor for extensive intraductal spread of breast carcinoma, the architecture of the MDLS has important therapeutic implications for patients treated with breast-conserving surgery. METHODS: An entire breast resected by subcutaneous mastectomy from a 69-year-old woman with ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) was examined in submacroscopic sections by stereomicroscopic and histologic techniques. Serial 2-mm sections underwent computer-assisted complete three-dimensional reconstruction of all MDLS. RESULTS: The entire breast that was studied contained 16 MDLS that were arranged radially, with the nipple at the center. Of these 16 MDLS, 4 (25.0%) had ductal anastomoses whereas the remaining 12 MDLS had no ductal anastomoses and completely independent regional anatomy. Ductal anastomoses were observed at 11 sites in the 4 MDLS. The 2 of 11 ductal anastomoses that connected different MDLS (18.2%) were situated > 4 cm from the nipple. The remaining nine ductal anastomoses connected ducts within the same MDLS; their location varied from near the nipple to the peripheral region. In the specimen examined, DCIS extended only within a single MDLS and did not spread between different MDLS via ductal anastomoses. CONCLUSIONS: To the authors' knowledge, the current study is the first time the complete architecture of all MDLS in an entire breast has been studied three-dimensionally. The risk of promoting the intraductal spread of disease during surgery may be greater when intraductal lesions extend more peripherally than centrally. The features of ductal anastomoses may provide a significant anatomic clue regarding negative surgical margins in breast-conserving surgery.

cDNA cloning and genetic polymorphism of the swine major histocompatibility complex (SLA) class II DMA gene.

cDNA clones corresponding to the swine histocompatibility complex (SLA: swine leucocyte antigen)-DM alpha chain were isolated using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products from the third exon in the human HLA-DMA gene as a probe. Amino acid comparative analysis revealed that these clones were more closely related to the bovine and human DMA genes than to the other swine class II genes alpha chain genes, DRA, DQA and DOA. These results suggest that the SLA-DMA gene is expressed and may function, like HLA-DM, as an important modulator in class II restricted antigen processing in swine. Furthermore, based on the sequences and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) patterns in the SLA-DMA gene, no allelic variation was recognized in the second exon, but five allelic variations were recognized in the third exon in five different breeds of swine. These DMA alleles were defined by variation at four nucleotide positions. Two of these alleles resulted in an amino acid substitution. These results suggest that SLA-DMA has little polymorphism as observed in HLA-DMA and mouse H2-Ma.

Giant mammary hamartoma diagnosed by stereomicroscopic analysis of the mammary glandular tree in an adolescent girl: report of a case.

This report describes a rare case of a giant hamartoma that developed in the right breast of a 17-year-old girl. No abnormalities were found by endocrinological studies and a well-circumscribed tumor, approximately 20 cm in diameter, was easily enucleated without bleeding during surgery, following which the bilateral breasts became nearly symmetrical. Histologic features revealed predominant fibrous stroma and scattered normal or occasionally dysplastic mammary glands without neoplastic properties. No distorted lobular structures indicating fibroadenoma characteristics were observed. Subgross and stereomicroscopic analysis of serial 2-mm-thick sections revealed mature normal lobules and predominant fibrous interstitial components. Therefore, the tumor was diagnosed as a giant hamartoma of the breast, according to the histologically non-neoplastic features and the delimited macroscopic appearance. This is a rare mammary gland disease characterized by the fact that although each of the histological components seemed to be normal, their constitution was abnormal. It appears that not only histological features but also clinical details are indispensable for the diagnosis of this disease.

The roles of Nramp1 and Tnfa genes in nitric oxide production and their effect on the growth of Salmonella typhimurium in macrophages from Nramp1 congenic and tumor necrosis factor-alpha-/- mice.

The macrophages from Nramp1 congenic mice and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha(-/-) mice were used to examine the functions of Nramp1 and Tnfa genes in nitric oxide (NO) production and Salmonella typhimurium infection. It was confirmed that the level of inducible NO synthase (iNOS)-mediated NO production in Nramp1(r) peritoneal macrophages was generally higher than that of Nramp1(s) macrophages after stimulation by interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) alone or in combination. Nramp1 mRNA expression in both Nramp1 congenic macrophages was constitutive notwithstanding cytokine stimulation. During infection with S. typhimurium strain 6203, Nramp1(r) macrophages produced a lower amount of NO because of an initial strong reaction and unsustained iNOS gene expression as compared with Nramp1(s) macrophages. An inhibitory effect of the Nramp1(r) gene on bacterial replication was also observed during the early stage of S. typhimurium infection, whereas the effect of TNF-alpha occurred later. NO production and iNOS expression in TNF-alpha(-/-) macrophages were not detected from the start of the bacterial infection or at 24 h after infection. We also observed that S. typhimurium strain 6203 grew more profoundly without TNF-alpha, especially in Nramp1(s) macrophages. These data, therefore, demonstrate that there is cooperation of the Nramp1 and Tnfa genes in NO production and a growth inhibitory effect in response to S. typhimurium infection.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) plays a protective role in acute viralmyocarditis in mice: A study using mice lacking TNF-alpha.

BACKGROUND: It has been reported that tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is expressed in the heart with viral myocarditis and that its expression aggravates the condition. The pathophysiological effects of TNF-alpha on viral myocarditis, however, have not been fully elucidated. METHODS AND RESULTS: To investigate the role of TNF-alpha in the progression of viral myocarditis, we used TNF-alpha gene-deficient mice (TNF-alpha(-/-)) and induced acute myocarditis by infection with encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV). The survival rate of TNF-alpha(-/-) mice after EMCV infection was significantly lower than that of TNF-alpha(+/+) mice (0% versus 67% on day 14). Injection of recombinant human TNF-alpha (0.2 to 4.0 microg/mouse IV) improved the survival of TNF-alpha(-/-) mice in a dose-dependent manner, indicating that TNF-alpha is essential for protection against viral myocarditis. The levels of viral titer and viral genomic RNA of EMCV in the myocardium were significantly higher in TNF-alpha(-/-) than in TNF-alpha(+/+) mice. Histopathological examination showed that the inflammatory changes of the myocardium were less marked in TNF-alpha(-/-) than in TNF-alpha(+/+) mice. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the levels of immunoreactivity of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 in the myocardium were decreased in TNF-alpha(-/-) mice compared with TNF-alpha(+/+) mice. CONCLUSIONS: These observations suggested that TNF-alpha is necessary for adhesion molecule expression and to recruit leukocytes to inflammatory sites, and thus, the lack of this cytokine resulted in failure of elimination of infectious agents. We concluded that TNF-alpha plays a protective role in the acute stage of viral myocarditis.

Differentiation of Dictyostelium discoideum vegetative cells into spores during Earth orbit in space.

We reported previously that emerged amoebae of Dictyostelium (D.) discoideum grew, aggregated and differentiated to fruiting bodies with normal morphology in space. Here, we investigated the effects of space radiation and/or microgravity on the number, viability, kinetics of germination, growth rate and mutation frequency of spores formed in space in a radiation-sensitive strain, gamma s13, and the parental strain, NC4. In gamma s13, there were hardly spores in the fruiting bodies formed in space. In NC4, we found a decrease in the number of spores, a delay in germination of the spores and delayed start of cell growth of the spores formed in space when compared to the ground control. However, the mutation frequency of the NC4 spores formed in space was similar to that of the ground control. We conclude that the depression of spore formation might be induced by microgravity and/or space radiation through the depression of some stage(s) of DNA repair during cell differentiation in the slime mold.