Reproduction, growth and oxidative stress in earthworm Eisenia andrei exposed to conventional and biodegradable mulching film microplastics.

Plastic contamination in agricultural soils has become increasingly evident. Plastic mulching films are widely used in agricultural practices. However, the increased use of biodegradable plastics has, to some extent, replaced their non-degradable counterparts. The fragmentation of plastics generates microplastics (MPs), posing risk to soil functions and organisms. In this study the effects of low-density polyethylene microplastics (PE-MP) and polybutylene adipate terephthalate biodegradable microplastics (PBAT-BD-MP) originating from mulching films on the earthworm Eisenia andrei were studied. The earthworms were exposed to seven concentrations (0, 0.005, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 5 % w/w) based on environmentally relevant levels and worst-case scenarios on soil contamination. Survival, growth, reproduction, and biomarkers for oxidative stress [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione (GSH), and lipid peroxidation (LPO)] were analysed. Additionally, the Integrated Biomarker Response Index (IBR) was calculated to assess the overall oxidative stress status of the earthworms. Results showed that PE-MP exposure slightly decreased the biomass of the earthworms towards higher concentrations, whereas PBAT-BD-MPs induced growth at lower concentrations. MPs did not have a significant effect on Eisenia andrei reproduction; however, a slight negative trend was observed in juvenile production with increasing PE-MP concentrations. Both PE-MP and PBAT-BD-MP affected antioxidant system, PE-MPs with changes in CAT and GR levels and PBAT-BD-MPs inducing effects on SOD and LPO levels. Additionally, both MPs exhibited effects on soil parameters, resulting in increased soil pH and water-holding capacity at 5 % concentration. Changes in soil parameters can further affect soil organisms such as earthworms. This study provides understanding of the ecotoxicological effects of conventional and biodegradable microplastics on the earthworm Eisenia andrei. It also shows that MP particles of both conventional and biodegradable mulching films induce oxidative stress, considered as an early-warning indicator for adverse ecological effects, in environmentally relevant concentrations.

Phthalates and other organic chemicals in agricultural soils after use of different types of conventional and biodegradable plastics.

Various plastic materials are used in contact with agricultural soil, like mulching films, crop covers, weed controlling fabrics and nets. Polyethylene (PE) mulches have already been recognized as a significant source of plastic in soil and they have been shown to contain additives like phthalates, known as endocrine disruptors. However, other agricultural plastics are less studied, and little is known on the substances potentially released from them endangering biodiversity and the human health. This research aims to assess whether different agricultural plastics release additives into soil and to compare the release among various materials. We collected soil samples from 38 agricultural fields where conventional mulching films (PE), weed controlling fabrics (PP), biodegradable mulches based on polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), frost covers (PP), and oxo-degradable films (at least OXO-PE) were used. We analyzed the soils for phthalates and acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), used as plastic additives, and for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and dodecane that have high affinity for plastics. In comparison to the control soils, dibutylphthalate (DBP) and ATBC concentrations were significantly higher in soils mulched with PE and, partly, with biodegradable films. DBP concentration found in soil samples ranged between below the limit of quantification at a control site (1.5 µg kg-1) to 135 µg kg-1 at a site mulched with OXO-PE. The highest ATBC concentration, 22 ± 6 µg kg-1, was registered in a site mulched with PE, showing a statistically significant difference not only in comparison to the controls but also when compared to sites mulched with OXO-PE (p = 0.029) and PBAT (p < 0.009). On the contrary, the use of agricultural plastics did not influence the concentration of PAHs and dodecane. Our results indicate that agricultural plastics are a source of some organic chemicals to agricultural soils, including phthalates that are known for posing threat to soil ecosystem and human health.

Comments to "Degli-Innocenti, F. The pathology of hype, hyperbole and publication bias is creating an unwarranted concern towards biodegradable mulch films" [J. Hazard. Mater. 463 (2024) 132923].

Some narratives present biodegradable plastic use for soil mulching practices in agriculture as "environmentally friendly" and "sustainable" alternatives to conventional plastics. To verify these narratives, environmental research recently started focusing on their potential impact on soil health, highlighting some concerns. The paper by Degli-Innocenti criticizes this unfolding knowledge arguing that it is affected by communication hypes, alarmistic writing and a focus on exposure scenarios purposedly crafted to yield negative effects. The quest of scientists for increased impact - the paper concludes - is the driver of such behavior. As scholars devoted to the safeguarding of scientific integrity, we set to verify whether this serious claim is grounded in evidence. Through a bibliometric analysis (using number of paper reads, citations and mentions on social media to measure the impact of publications) we found that: i) the papers pointed out by Degli-Innocenti as examples of biased works do not score higher than the median of similar publications; ii) the methodology used to support the conclusion is non-scientific; and iii) the paper does not fulfil the requirements concerning disclosure of conflicts of interests. We conclude that this paper represents a non-scientific opinion, potentially biased by a conflict of interest. We ask the paper to be clearly tagged as such, after the necessary corrections on the ethic section have been made. That being said, the paper does offer some useful insights for the definition of exposure scenarios in risk assessment. We comment and elaborate on these proposed models, hoping that this can help to advance the field.

Exploring the impacts of microplastics and associated chemicals in the terrestrial environment - Exposure of soil invertebrates to tire particles.

Abrasion of tire wear is one of the largest sources of microplastics to the environment. Although most tire particles settle into soils, studies on their ecotoxicological impacts on the terrestrial environment are scarce. Here, the effects of tire particles (<180 µm) on three ecologically relevant soil invertebrate species, the enchytraeid worm Enchytraeus crypticus, the springtail Folsomia candida and the woodlouse Porcellio scaber, were studied. These species were exposed to tire particles spiked in soil or in food at concentrations of 0.02%, 0.06%, 0.17%, 0.5% and 1.5% (w/w). Tire particles contained a variety of potentially harmful substances. Zinc (21 900 mg kg-1) was the dominant trace element, whilst the highest concentrations of the measured organic compounds were detected for benzothiazole (89.2 mg kg-1), pyrene (4.85 mg kg-1), chlorpyrifos (0.351 mg kg-1), HCB (0.134 mg kg-1), methoxychlor (0.116 mg kg-1) and BDE 28 (0.100 mg kg-1). At the highest test concentration in soil (1.5%), the tire particles decreased F. candida reproduction by 38% and survival by 24%, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity of P. scaber by 65%, whilst the slight decrease in the reproduction of E. crypticus was not dose-dependent. In food, the highest test concentration of tire particles reduced F. candida survival by 38%. These results suggest that micro-sized tire particles can affect soil invertebrates at concentrations found at roadsides, whilst short-term impacts at concentrations found further from the roadsides are unlikely.

Microplastics, chlorpyrifos and their mixtures modulate immune processes in the terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber.

Microplastics and agrochemicals are common pollutants in terrestrial ecosystems. Their interaction during coexistence in soils may influence their fate and adverse effects on terrestrial organisms. The aim of this study was to investigate how the exposure to two types of microplastics; polyester fibres, and crumb rubber; induce changes in immune parameters of Porcellio scaber and if the co-exposure of microplastics affects the response induced by the organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos. A number of immune parameters, such as total haemocyte count, differential haemocyte count, and phenoloxidase-like activity were assessed. In addition, the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the haemolymph was evaluated as a measure of the bioavailability of chlorpyrifos. After three weeks of exposure, the most noticeable changes in the measured immune parameters and also a significantly reduced AChE activity were seen in chlorpyrifos-exposed animals. Both types of microplastic at environmentally relevant concentrations caused only slight changes in immune parameters which were not dependent on the type of microplastic, although the two types differed significantly in terms of the chemical complexity of the additives. Mixtures of chlorpyrifos and microplastics induced changes that differed from individual exposures. For example, alterations in some measured parameters suggested a reduced bioavailability of chlorpyrifos (AChE activity, haemocyte viability) caused by both types of microplastics exposure, but the increase of haemocyte count was promoted by the presence of fibres implying their joint action. In conclusion, this study suggests that immune processes in P. scaber are slightly changed upon exposure to both types of microplastics and microplastics can significantly modulate the effects of other co-exposed chemicals. Further research is needed on the short-term and long-term joint effects of microplastics and agrochemicals on the immunity of soil invertebrates.

Exploring the impacts of plastics in soil - The effects of polyester textile fibers on soil invertebrates.

Polyester fiber is one of the most abundant types of microplastics in the environment. A major proportion of the fibers entering wastewater treatment plants end up in sewage sludge, which is used as a soil fertilizer in many countries. As their impacts in the terrestrial environment are still poorly understood, we studied the effects of polyester fibers on enchytraeids (Enchytraeus crypticus), springtails (Folsomia candida), isopods (Porcellio scaber) and oribatid mites (Oppia nitens), all playing an important role in soil decomposer food webs. We exposed these invertebrates in the laboratory to short (12 µm-2.87 mm) and long (4-24 mm) polyester fibers, spiked in soil or in food at five concentrations ranging from 0.02% to 1.5% (w/w) and using five replicates. Overall the effects of polyester fibers on the soil invertebrates were slight. Energy reserves of the isopods were slightly affected by both fiber types, and enchytraeid reproduction decreased up to 30% with increasing fiber concentration, but only for long fibers in soil. The low ingestion of long fibers by the enchytraeids suggests that this negative impact arose from a physical harm outside the organism, or from indirect effects resulting from changes in environmental conditions. The short fibers were clearly ingested by enchytraeids and isopods, with the rate of ingestion positively related to fiber concentration in the soil. This study shows that polyester fibers are not very harmful to soil invertebrates upon short-term exposure. However, longer lasting, multigeneration studies with functional endpoints are needed to reveal the possible long-term effects on soil invertebrates and their role in the decomposition process. This study also shows that polyester fibers can enter terrestrial food web via ingestion of fibers by soil invertebrates.

Nutrient leaching, soil pH and changes in microbial community increase with time in lead-contaminated boreal forest soil at a shooting range area.

Despite the known toxicity of lead (Pb), Pb pellets are widely used at shotgun shooting ranges over the world. However, the impacts of Pb on soil nutrients and soil microbes, playing a crucial role in nutrient cycling, are poorly understood. Furthermore, it is unknown whether these impacts change with time after the cessation of shooting. To shed light on these issues, three study sites in the same coniferous forest in a shooting range area were studied: an uncontaminated control site and an active and an abandoned shooting range, both sharing a similar Pb pellet load in the soil, but the latter with a 20-year longer contamination history. Soil pH and nitrate concentration increased, whilst soil phosphate concentration and fungal phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) decreased due to Pb contamination. Our results imply that shooting-derived Pb can influence soil nutrients and microbes not only directly but also indirectly by increasing soil pH. However, these mechanisms cannot be differentiated here. Many of the Pb-induced changes were most pronounced at the abandoned range, and nutrient leaching was increased only at that site. These results suggest that Pb disturbs the structure and functions of the soil system and impairs a crucial ecosystem service, the ability to retain nutrients. Furthermore, the risks of shooting-derived Pb to the environment increase with time.

Soil processes and tree growth at shooting ranges in a boreal forest reflect contamination history and lead-induced changes in soil food webs.

The effects of shooting-derived lead (Pb) on the structure and functioning of a forest ecosystem, and the recovery of the ecosystem after range abandonment were studied at an active shotgun shooting range, an abandoned shooting range where shooting ceased 20 years earlier and an uncontaminated control site. Despite numerous lead-induced changes in the soil food web, soil processes were only weakly related to soil food web composition. However, decomposition of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) needle litter was retarded at the active shooting range, and microbial activity, microbial biomass and the rate of decomposition of Pb-contaminated grass litter decreased with increasing soil Pb concentrations. Tree (P. sylvestris) radial growth was suppressed at the active shooting range right after shooting activities started. In contrast, the growth of pines improved at the abandoned shooting range after the cessation of shooting, despite reduced nitrogen and phosphorus contents of the needles. Higher litter degradation rates and lower Pb concentrations in the topmost soil layer at the abandoned shooting range suggest gradual recovery after range abandonment. Our findings suggest that functions in lead-contaminated coniferous forest ecosystems depend on the successional stage of the forest as well as the time since the contamination source has been eliminated, which affects, e.g., the vertical distribution of the contaminant in the soil. However, despite multiple lead-induced changes throughout the ecosystem, the effects were rather weak, indicating high resistance of coniferous forest ecosystems to this type of stress.

Can the soil fauna of boreal forests recover from lead-derived stress in a shooting range area?

The responses of soil faunal communities to lead (Pb) contamination in a shooting range area and the recovery of these fauna after range abandonment were studied by comparing the communities at an active shotgun shooting range, an abandoned shooting range, and a control site, locating in the same forest. Despite the similar overall Pb pellet load at the shooting ranges, reaching up to 4 kg m(-2), Pb concentrations in the top soil of the abandoned range has decreased due to the accumulation of detritus on the soil surface. As a consequence, soil animal communities were shown to recover from Pb-related disturbances by utilizing the less contaminated soil layer. Microarthropods showed the clearest signs of recovery, their numbers and community composition being close to those detected at the control site. However, in the deepest organic soil layer, the negative effects of Pb were more pronounced at the abandoned than at the active shooting range, which was detected as altered microarthropod and nematode community structures, reduced abundances of several microarthropod taxa, and the total absence of enchytraeid worms. Thus, although the accumulation of fresh litter on soil surface can promote the recovery of decomposer communities in the top soil, the gradual release of Pb from corroding pellets may pose a long-lasting risk for decomposer taxa deeper in the soil.

The fate of lead at abandoned and active shooting ranges in a boreal pine forest.

Changes in leaching, availability, bioaccumulation, and vertical distribution of lead (Pb) in soil 20 years after the cessation of shooting activity were studied by comparing three pine forest sites in southern Finland: an active shooting range, an abandoned shooting range, and a noncontaminated control site. At both shooting ranges, shooting activity had lasted for 20 years, but it had taken place 20 years earlier at the abandoned range. Up to 4 kg m(-2) of Pb pellets had accumulated in the soil at both shooting ranges, and extremely high Pb concentrations, reaching 50,000 mg kg(-1) , were detected in the organic soil layer. Elevated Pb concentrations were also found in leachate waters and in the biota. Concentrations of Pb in the top organic soil layer and in some of the biota were lower at the abandoned shooting range, which can be taken as a sign of starting recovery of the forest ecosystem. However, the concentration of water-extractable Pb had not decreased in the topsoil, possibly indicating the release of Pb from decaying litter. Deeper in the organic soil layer, weathering of Pb pellets enhanced Pb availability and leaching, indicating an increased risk of groundwater contamination over time at shooting sites located above aquifers.

Has long-term metal exposure induced changes in life history traits and genetic diversity of the enchytraeid worm Cognettia sphagnetorum (Vejd.)?

We studied whether long-term metal exposure has affected life history traits, population growth patterns and genetic diversity of the asexual enchytraeid worm Cognettia sphagnetorum (Vejd.). Enchytraeids from metal contaminated and uncontaminated forest soil were compared by growing them individually in the laboratory and by following their population development in patchily Cu contaminated microcosms. Genetic differences between the two native populations were studied using allozyme electrophoresis. Individuals from the contaminated site had slower growth rate and they produced fewer fragments of larger size when compared to individuals from the uncontaminated site. In patchily Cu contaminated microcosms, C. sphagnetorum from the contaminated site had a slower population growth rate. Most alleles were shared by the two native populations, but there was greater diversity and more unique genotypes in the population living in the uncontaminated site. Overall, long-term exposure to metals has induced only slight changes in life history properties and clonal diversity of C. sphagnetorum.