Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality and Bacterial Antibiotic Sensitivity in Wells and Standpipes at Household Water Points in Freetown, Sierra Leone.

Water quality surveillance can help to reduce waterborne diseases. Despite better access to safe drinking water in Sierra Leone, about a third of the population (3 million people) drink water from unimproved sources. In this cross-sectional study, we collected water samples from 15 standpipes and 5 wells and measured the physicochemical and bacteriological water quality, and the antimicrobial sensitivity of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in two communities in Freetown, Sierra Leone in the dry and wet seasons in 2021. All water sources were contaminated with E. coli, and all five wells and 25% of standpipes had at least an intermediate risk level of E. coli. There was no antimicrobial resistance detected in the E. coli tested. The nitrate level exceeded the WHO's recommended standard (>10 parts per million) in 60% of the wells and in less than 20% of the standpipes. The proportion of samples from standpipes with high levels of total dissolved solids (>10 Nephelometric Turbidity Units) was much higher in the rainy season (73% vs. 7%). The level of water contamination is concerning. We suggest options to reduce E. coli contamination. Further research is required to identify where contamination of the water in standpipes is occurring.

Optimising scale and deployment of community health workers in Sierra Leone: a geospatial analysis.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about strategies for optimising the scale and deployment of community health workers (CHWs) to maximise geographic accessibility of primary healthcare services. METHODS: We used data from a national georeferenced census of CHWs and other spatial datasets in Sierra Leone to undertake a geospatial analysis exploring optimisation of the scale and deployment of CHWs, with the aim of informing implementation of current CHW policy and future plans of the Ministry of Health and Sanitation. RESULTS: The per cent of the population within 30 min walking to the nearest CHW with preservice training increased from 16.1% to 80.4% between 2000 and 2015. Contrary to current national policy, most of this increase occurred in areas within 3 km of a health facility where nearly two-thirds (64.5%) of CHWs were deployed. Ministry of Health and Sanitation-defined 'easy-to-reach' and 'hard-to-reach' areas, geographic areas that should be targeted for CHW deployment, were less well covered, with 19.2% and 34.6% of the population in 2015 beyond a 30 min walk to a CHW, respectively. Optimised CHW networks in these areas were more efficiently deployed than existing networks by 22.4%-71.9%, depending on targeting metric. INTERPRETATIONS: Our analysis supports the Ministry of Health and Sanitation plan to rightsize and retarget the CHW workforce. Other countries in sub-Saharan Africa interested in optimising the scale and deployment of their CHW workforce in the context of broader human resources for health and health sector planning may look to Sierra Leone as an exemplar model from which to learn.

Prevalence and mortality of cryptococcal disease in adults with advanced HIV in an urban tertiary hospital in Sierra Leone: a prospective study.

BACKGROUND: The global annual estimate for cryptococcal disease-related deaths exceeds 180,000, with three fourth occurring in sub-Saharan Africa. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) screening in all HIV patients with CD4 count < 100/µl. As there is no previous published study on the burden and impact of cryptococcal disease in Sierra Leone, research is needed to inform public health policies. We aimed to establish the seroprevalence and mortality of cryptococcal disease in adults with advanced HIV attending an urban tertiary hospital in Sierra Leone. METHODS: A prospective cohort study design was used to screen consecutive adult (18 years or older) HIV patients at Connaught Hospital in Freetown, Sierra Leone with CD4 count below 100 cells/mm3 from January to April 2018. Participants received a blood CrAg lateral flow assay (IMMY, Oklahoma, USA). All participants with a positive serum CrAg had lumbar puncture and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) CrAg assay, and those with cryptococcal diseases had fluconazole monotherapy with 8 weeks followed up. Data were entered into Excel and analysed in Stata version 13.0. Proportions, median and interquartile ranges were used to summarise the data. Fisher's exact test was used to compare categorical variables. RESULTS: A total of 170 patients, with median age of 36 (IQR 30-43) and median CD4 count of 45 cells/mm3 (IQR 23-63) were screened. At the time of enrolment, 54% were inpatients, 51% were newly diagnosed with HIV, and 56% were either ART-naïve or newly initiated (≤ 30 days). Eight participants had a positive blood CrAg, giving a prevalence of 4.7% (95% CI: 2.4-9.2%). Of those with a positive CrAg, CSF CrAg was positive in five (62.5%). Five (62.5%) CrAg-positive participants died within the first month, while the remaining three were alive and established on ART at 8 weeks. CONCLUSION: A substantial prevalence of cryptococcal antigenaemia and poor outcome of cryptococcal disease were demonstrated in our study. The high mortality suggests a need for the HIV programme to formulate and implement policies on screening and pre-emptive fluconazole therapy for all adults with advanced HIV in Sierra Leone, and advocate for affordable access to effective antifungal therapies.

Causes of hospitalization and predictors of HIV-associated mortality at the main referral hospital in Sierra Leone: a prospective study.

BACKGROUND: HIV infection is a growing public health problem in Sierra Leone and the wider West Africa region. The countrywide HIV prevalence was estimated at 1.7% (67,000 people), with less than 30% receiving life-saving ART in 2016. Thus, HIV-infected patients tend to present to health facilities late, with high mortality risk. METHODS: We conducted a prospective study of HIV inpatients aged ≥15 years at Connaught Hospital in Freetown-the main referral hospital in Sierra Leone-from July through September 2017, to assess associated factors and predictors of HIV-related mortality. RESULTS: One hundred seventy-three HIV inpatients were included, accounting for 14.2% (173/1221) of all hospital admissions during the study period. The majority were female (59.5%, 70/173), median age was 34 years, with 51.4% (89/173) of them diagnosed with HIV infection for the first time during the current hospitalization. The most common admitting diagnoses were anemia (48%, 84/173), tuberculosis (24.3%, 42/173), pneumonia (17.3%, 30/173) and diarrheal illness (15.0%, 26/173). CD4 count was obtained in 64.7% (112/173) of patients, with median value of 87 cells/µL (IQR 25-266), and was further staged as severe immunosuppression: CD4 < 100 cells/µL (50%, 56/112); AIDS: CD4 < 200 cells/µL (69.6%, 78/112); and late-stage HIV disease: CD4 < 350 cells/µL (83%, 93/112). Fifty-two patients (30.1%, 52/173) died during hospitalization, 23% (12/52) of them within the first week. The leading causes of death were anemia (23.1%, 12/52), pneumonia (19.2%, 10/52), diarrheal illness (15.4%, 8/52) and tuberculosis (13.6%, 7/52). Neurological symptoms, i.e., loss of consciousness (p = 0.04) and focal limb weakness (p = 0.04); alcohol use (p = 0.01); jaundice (p = 0.02); cerebral toxoplasmosis (p = 0.01); and tuberculosis (p = 0.04) were significantly associated with mortality; however, only jaundice (AOR 0.11, 95% CI [0.02-0.65]; p = 0.01) emerged as an independent predictor of mortality. CONCLUSION: HIV-infected patients account for a substantial proportion of admissions at Connaught Hospital, with a high morbidity and in-hospital mortality burden. These findings necessitate the implementation of specific measures to enhance early HIV diagnosis and expand treatment access to all HIV-infected patients in Sierra Leone.

Low partner testing in high HIV prevalence setting in Freetown, Sierra Leone: a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: Despite a 1.5% National HIV prevalence, less than 40% of people living with HIV in Sierra Leone know their status. Limited activities on testing partners of HIV patients could be contributory to this substantial unawareness of HIV status. We carried out a retrospective study aimed at assessing partner testing and HIV prevalence among adults (≥ 15 years) tested using Determine™ and SD Bioline as recorded in the HIV testing registers from January to December 2017 at Connaught Hospital, an urban tertiary hospital in Sierra Leone. RESULTS: Of the 3808 clients tested for HIV, 2048 (53.8%) were females. The median age was 31 (IQR 24-42) years and 2104 (55.3%) were single. While 3014 (79.1%) had Provider-Initiated Testing and Counseling (PITC), 794 (20.9%) had Client-Initiated Testing and Counseling (CITC). HIV test was positive in 925 (24.3%) {CI 22.9-25.6, P < 0.001} clients. Of the 17 (0.4%) partners tested for HIV, 9 (52.9%) were positive. PITC yielded more HIV positive cases (760, 25.2%) than CITC (165, 20.8%). Partner testing (P = 0.007), female sex (P < 0.001) and PITC (P = 0.006) were associated with a positive HIV diagnosis. With high HIV prevalence and low partner testing, activities on partner testing are needed to improve the response to the epidemic.

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, and Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Infections in HIV-Infected Patients in Sierra Leone.

HIV coinfection with hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human T-cell lymphotropic viruses 1 and 2 (HTLV-1 and HTLV-2) is common because of shared transmission routes. There is no published data on the prevalence of these infections in people living with HIV in Sierra Leone. We conducted a cross-sectional study of 211 HIV-positive patients aged ≥ 18 years in Freetown, Sierra Leone, in November 2017. Plasma samples were analyzed using the chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (Architect System, Abbott ARCHITECT Analyzer, Abbott Park, IL. The majority were female (63.5%), with median age 36 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 32-44) and median CD4 count of 396 cells/µL (IQR: 214-534). Sixty patients (28.4%) were newly diagnosed and antiretroviral therapy (ART) naive; 151 patients (71.6%) were ART experienced. The prevalence of the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), total anti-hepatitis B core antibody, and anti-HCV was 21.7%, 82.9%, and 4.3%, respectively. No cases of HTLV-1 or HTLV-2 were detected. Male gender (P = 0.004) and CD4 < 350 cells/µL (P = 0.017) were associated with the HBsAg positive status.

Prevalence of drug resistance mutations among ART-naive and -experienced HIV-infected patients in Sierra Leone.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of HIV drug resistance (HIVDR) in HIV-infected ART-naive and -experienced patients in Sierra Leone. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of HIV-positive adults aged ≥18 years at Connaught Hospital in Freetown, Sierra Leone in November 2017. Sequencing was performed in the reverse transcriptase, protease and integrase regions, and interpreted using the Stanford HIVDR database and WHO 2009 mutation list. RESULTS: Two hundred and fifteen HIV-infected patients were included (64 ART naive and 151 ART experienced). The majority (66%) were female, the median age was 36 years and the median ART exposure was 48 months. The majority (83%) were infected with HIV-1 subtype CRF02_AG. In the ART-naive group, the pretreatment drug resistance (PDR) prevalence was 36.7% (14.2% to NRTIs and 22.4% to NNRTIs). The most prevalent PDR mutations were K103N (14.3%), M184V (8.2%) and Y181C (4.1%). In the ART-experienced group, 64.4% harboured resistance-associated mutations (RAMs) and the overall prevalence of RAMs to NRTIs and NNRTIs was 85.2% (52/61) and 96.7% (59/61), respectively. The most prevalent RAMs were K103N (40.7%), M184V (28.8%), D67N (15.3%) and T215I/F/Y (15.3%). Based on the genotypic susceptibility score estimates, 22.4% of ART-naive patients and 56% of ART-experienced patients were not susceptible to first-line ART used in Sierra Leone. CONCLUSIONS: A high prevalence of circulating NRTI- and NNRTI-resistant variants was observed in ART-naive and -experienced HIV-1-infected patients in Sierra Leone. This necessitates the implementation of HIVDR surveillance programmes to inform national ART guidelines for the treatment and monitoring of HIV-infected patients in Sierra Leone.

Understanding why HIV-infected persons disengaged from pre-ART care in Freetown, Sierra Leone: a qualitative study.

In countries that have not implemented universal antiretroviral treatment (ART), loss to follow-up (LTFU) during pre-ART care remains a problem. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 41 HIV-infected persons who were LTFU during pre-ART care from a prospective cohort of persons newly diagnosed with HIV infection in Freetown, Sierra Leone, in 2012-2013. Interviews determined whether the participant disengaged or transferred care and explored the reasons for being LTFU. Of the 41 participants, 34 (83%) disengaged from care. For persons who disengaged from care, socioeconomic barriers emerged as a dominant theme in both ART-eligible and -ineligible groups while psychosocial barriers emerged as a dominant theme in the ART-ineligible group. Structural barriers emerged as a dominant theme for participants who transferred care. Interventions designed to address socioeconomic and psychosocial barriers may help reduce disengagement from pre-ART care.

Ebola infection control in Sierra Leonean health clinics: A large cross-agency cooperative project.

The Ebola virus disease outbreak occurring in West Africa has resulted in at least 199 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leonean health care workers, many as a result of transmission occurring in health facilities. The Ministry of Health and Sanitation of Sierra Leone recognized that improvements in infection prevention and control (IPC) were necessary at all levels of health care delivery. To this end, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United Nations Children's Fund, and multiple nongovernmental organizations implemented a national IPC training program in 1,200 peripheral health units (PHUs) in Sierra Leone. A tiered training of trainers program was used. Trainers conducted multiday trainings at PHUs and coordinated the delivery of personal protective equipment (gloves, gowns, masks, boots) and infection control supplies (chlorine, buckets, disposable rags, etc) to all PHU staff. Under the ongoing project, 4,264 health workers have already been trained, and 98% of PHUs have received their first shipment of supplies.