DL-EDOF: Novel Multi-Focus Image Data Set and Deep Learning-Based Approach for More Accurate and Specimen-Free Extended Depth of Focus.

Depth of focus (DOF) is defined as the axial range in which the specimen stage moves without losing focus while the imaging apparatus remains stable. It may not be possible to capture an image that includes the entire specimen in focus due to the narrow DOF in microscopic systems. Extended depth of focus (EDOF) is used to overcome this limitation in microscopic systems. Although the researchers have developed so many EDOF microscope approaches, this research field still has some crucial shortcomings such as high computational costs, complexity and execution time, requiring additional equipment, low precise characterization of curves, and edges in images, varying performance depending on the specimen and microscope, using only gray levels of input images to acquire the pixel's focus values. In order to minimize these shortcomings and comprehensively analyze the performance of EDOF approaches, a novel multi-focus image data set is generated, and a deep learning-based EDOF microscope approach is proposed in this study. When compared with the state-of-art EDOF approaches, our study provides various crucial contributions such as the first EDOF approach based on unsupervised deep learning, providing more accurate and specimen-free EDOF, generating a novel multi-focus image data, not requiring any pre- or post-processing technique and acquiring the pixel's focus degrees using deep features. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the suggested approach, 20 different EDOF approaches are applied to a multi-focus image data set containing 9 image collections (4 synthetic and 5 microscope image collections) in total. Performance analysis metrics with and without requiring a reference image are preferred to identify which EDOF microscope approach can extract more essential details from the multi-focus images for the synthetic and microscope image collections, which are Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Peak Signal Noise Ratio (PSNR), Universal Quality Index (UQI), Correlation Coefficient (CC), Perception-based Image Quality Evaluator (PIQE), Blind/Referenceless Image Spatial Quality Evaluator (BRISQUE), Extension of Universal Quality Index for N Images (UQIN), and Naturalness Image Quality Evaluator (NIQE). Objective and subjective analysis of this study demonstrates that unsupervised deep learning model is more efficient to transmit crucial details from multi-focus images. Moreover, the suggested EDOF microscope approach with highest PSNR, UQI, CC, UQIN and lowest RMSE, PIQE, BRISQUE, NIQE produces higher performance than the state-of-art approaches.

The contribution of the WNT pathway to the therapeutic effects of montelukast in experimental murine airway inflammation induced by ovalbumin and lipopolysaccharide.

The wingless/integrase-1 (WNT) pathway involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory airway diseases has recently generated considerable research interest. Montelukast, a leukotriene receptor antagonist, provides therapeutic benefits in allergic asthma involving eosinophils. We aimed to investigate the role of the WNT pathway in the therapeutic actions of montelukast (MT) in a mixed type of allergic-acute airway inflammation model induced by ovalbumin (OVA) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice. Female mice were sensitized with intraperitoneal OVA-Al(OH)3 administration in the initiation phase and intranasal OVA followed by LPS administration in the challenge phase. The mice were divided into eight groups: control, asthmatic, and control/asthmatic treated with XAV939 (inhibitor of the canonical WNT pathway), LGK-974 (inhibitor of the secretion of WNT ligands), or MT at different doses. The inhibition of the WNT pathway prevented tracheal 5-HT and bradykinin hyperreactivity, while only the inhibition of the canonical WNT pathway partially reduced 5-HT and bradykinin contractions compared to the inflammation group. Therefore, MT treatment hindered 5-HT and bradykinin hyperreactivity associated with airway inflammation. Furthermore, MT prevented the increases in the phosphorylated GSK-3ß and WNT5A levels, which had been induced by airway inflammation, in a dose-dependent manner. Conversely, the MT application caused a further increase in the fibronectin levels, while there was no significant alteration in the phosphorylation of the Smad-2 levels in the isolated lungs of the mice. The MT treatment reversed the increase in the mRNA expression levels of interleukin-17A. An increase in eosinophil and neutrophil counts was observed in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples obtained from the mice in the inflammation group, which was hampered by the MT treatment. The inhibition of the WNT pathway did not alter inflammatory cytokine expression or cell infiltration. The WNT pathway mediated the therapeutic effects of MT due to the inhibition of GSK-3ß phosphorylation as well as the reduction of WNT5A levels in a murine airway inflammation model.

Dual Strategy with Adipose-Derived Stem Cells and l-arginine Recovered Cavernosal Functions in a Rat Model of Radical Prostatectomy.

As standard therapy for prostate cancer, radical prostatectomy causes cavernous nerve (CN) injury and increases fibrosis and hypoxia-induced penile structural alterations. This study aimed to determine the potential beneficial effects of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) and l-arginine alone or in combination on the penile erection in a rat model of erectile dysfunction caused by bilateral cavernous nerve transection (CNT). Male rats (n = 35) were randomized into five groups: Sham-operated; CNT (4-weeks); CNT plus ADSCs (1 × 106 cells by intracavernosal injection); CNT plus l-arginine (4 weeks, 10 mg/kg/day, oral); and ADSCs combined with l-arginine in CNT. In vivo erectile responses and in vitro relaxant responses were measured. Western blot and immunohistochemistry analyses were used to determine the expression and localization of endothelial nitric oxide synthase, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, transforming growth factor-beta 1, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α), and apoptosis markers (Bax and Bcl-2). The ratio of smooth muscle to collagen and nerve regeneration were calculated using Masson's trichrome and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-diaphorase staining. The combined treatment restored diminished erectile responses, endothelium-dependent acetylcholine, and electrical field stimulation-induced relaxation of the corpus cavernosum in rats with CNT, whereas either monotherapy produced only partial improvements. All treatment regimens restored increases in the protein expression of HIF-1 and Bax in rats with CNT. The decrease in smooth muscle mass and NADPH-diaphorase-positive nerve fibers was partially ameliorated by monotherapy, whereas combined therapy led to recovery. These findings indicate that combined treatment with ADSCs and l-arginine may restore erectile function in rats with CNT by inhibiting hypoxia-induced neurotoxicity and preserving endothelium function and smooth muscle content.

Riluzole, a neuroprotective agent, preserves erectile function following bilateral cavernous nerve injury in male rats.

Neurogenic erectile dysfunction is a highly prevalent complication in men undergoing radical prostatectomy. The underlying mechanisms remain incompletely defined and the effective therapy has been limited. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of riluzole and the role of PKC ß and excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) mediating this effect in a rat model of bilateral cavernous injury (BCNI). A total of 48 male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into sham, BCNI (at 7, 15 days post-injury) and BCNI treated with riluzole (8 mg/kg/day) groups. Erectile function was measured as maximum intracavernosal pressure (mICP)/mean arterial pressure (MAP) and total ICP/MAP. Changes in protein expressions of phospho (p)-PKC ß IIser660 and EAATs were analysed in penis and major pelvic ganglion with western blotting. BCNI decreased erectile function at 7 and 15 days post-injury (mICP/MAP at 4 V: 0.45 ± 0.06 vs 0.84 ± 0.07; 0.34 ± 0.04 vs 0.77 ± 0.04 respectively; p < 0.001) whereas riluzole treatment (for 15 days) preserved erectile function (mICP/MAP at 4 V: 0.62 ± 0.03 vs 0.34 ± 0.04; p < 0.01). The decline in the expression of p-PKC ß IIser660 was observed in penis at 7 and 15 days post-injury (p = 0.0003, p = 0.0033), which was prevented by riluzole treatment for 15 days (p = 0.0464). While expressions of EAAT-1 and EAAT-2 decreased in major pelvic ganglion following BCNI (p = 0.0428, p = 0.002), riluzole treatment for 15 days prevented the decrease only in EAAT-2 expression (p = 0.0456). Riluzole improved erectile function via possibly interacting with PKC ß II and glutamatergic pathways, as a potential therapeutic candidate for erectile dysfunction.

Trimetazidine attenuates cyclophosphamide-induced cystitis by inhibiting TLR4-mediated NFκB signaling in mice.

AIM: Cyclophosphamide (CP)-induced cystitis is a challenging clinical problem involving inflammation and dysfunction of bladder. Trimetazidine (TMZ) is an anti-anginal drug with anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. We aimed to investigate the protective effects of TMZ in CP-induced cystitis via inhibiting TLR4/NFκB signaling. MAIN METHODS: Balb/c mice were administrated TMZ (10 or 20 mg/kg/day) intraperitoneally (i.p.) for 5 consecutive days before CP. On day 6, cystitis was induced by a single dose of CP (300 mg/kg, i.p.). Mesna (2-mercaptoethane sulfonate sodium; 30 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered 20 min before and at 4 and 8 h after the CP injection. After 24 h of cystitis induction, the bladders were removed for histopathological evaluation, contractility studies, biochemical analysis and western blotting. MTT assay was performed in a cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) to evaluate the effect of TMZ on the cytotoxicity of CP. KEY FINDINGS: CP-induced severe cystitis was confirmed by histological disturbances and the decrease in carbachol-evoked contractions of detrusor strips, which was partially improved by TMZ (20 mg/kg/day). SOD activity and GSH content were decreased whereas TNF-α and IL-1ß levels were increased in the bladders of CP-treated mice, which were restored by TMZ or mesna. TMZ reduced the CP-induced increase in the protein expressions of caspase-3, TLR4 and phosphorylated-NFκB in bladder tissues. TMZ alone decreased the cell viability and TMZ also enhanced the cytotoxicity of CP. SIGNIFICANCE: Our study provides the first preclinical evidence that TMZ attenuates CP-induced urotoxicity by enhancing anti-oxidant capacity and suppressing inflammation possibly via downregulating TLR4-mediated NFκB signaling while augmenting the cytotoxicity of CP.

The inhibitory effect of trimetazidine on detrusor contractility - a potential repositioning of trimetazidine for the treatment of overactive bladder.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to identify the effect of trimetazidine (TMZ), an antianginal drug, on detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) contractility and its possible mechanisms of action. METHODS: We performed in-vitro contractility studies on isolated mouse DSM strips and investigated the effect of TMZ on Ca2+ levels in fura-2-loaded A7r5 cells. KEY FINDINGS: TMZ (300 or 1000 µM) inhibited carbachol (CCh)- and KCl-induced contractions and produced a concentration-dependent (10-1000 µM) relaxation in KCl-precontracted DSM strips. TMZ-induced relaxation was markedly decreased by BaCl2, an inward-rectifying K+ channel blocker, but was not altered by preincubation with tetraethylammonium, glibenclamide, 4-aminopyridine, propranolol, L-NAME or methylene blue. TMZ (300 or 1000 µM) reduced both the CaCl2-induced contraction of depolarized DSM strips under Ca2+-free conditions and the CCh-induced contraction of DSM strips preincubated with nifedipine in Ca2+-containing Krebs solution. Furthermore, TMZ (1000 µM) significantly decreased the Ca2+ levels in fura-2-loaded A7r5 cells. CONCLUSIONS: TMZ decreased DSM contractility and caused a concentration-dependent relaxation of the tissue possibly through its actions on Ca2+ transients and K+ channels. Our results provide preclinical evidence that TMZ would be a potential candidate to treat disorders related to the overactivity of the bladder.

Improved Endothelium-Dependent Relaxation of Thoracic Aorta in Niclosamide-Treated Diabetic Rats.

Diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction is critical for the development of diabetic cardiovascular complications. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of niclosamide (Nic) on vascular endothelial dysfunction in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with a single intraperitoneal injection of STZ (75 mg/kg) to induce type 1 diabetes, and Nic (10 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered per day for 4 weeks. Endothelial function was evaluated as carbachol (CCh, an endothelium-dependent vasodilator)-evoked relaxation in the experiments performed on isolated thoracic aortas. The changes in the protein expressions of phosphorylated eNOS at serine 1177 (p-eNOSSer1177) and phosphorylated VASP at serine 239 (p-VASPSer239) of the rat aortas were analyzed by western blotting to determine whether NO/cGMP signaling is involved in the mechanism of Nic. STZ-injected rats had higher fasting blood glucose and less body weight compared to control rats (p < 0.05). Nic treatment did not affect blood glucose levels or body weights of the rats. CCh-induced endothelium-dependent relaxation of the aortic rings was significantly decreased in diabetic rats compared to control (Emax = 66.79 ± 7.41% and 90.28 ± 5.55%, respectively; p < 0.05). CCh-induced relaxation response was greater in Nic-treated diabetic rats compared to diabetic rats (Emax = 91.56 ± 1.20% and 66.79 ± 7.41%, respectively; p < 0.05). Phosphorylation of eNOS and VASP in aortic tissues was significantly reduced in diabetic rats, which were markedly increased by Nic treatment (p < 0.05). We demonstrated that Nic improved endothelial dysfunction possibly through the activation of NO/cGMP signaling without affecting hyperglycemia in diabetic rats. Our results suggesting that Nic has potential of repurposing for diabetic cardiovascular complications.

Alpha-lipoic acid: A promising adjuvant for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs therapy with improved efficacy and gastroprotection.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used in a wide variety of diseases due to their analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, but their usage have been limited due to significant ulcerogenic side effects. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of α-lipoic acid (ALA) treatment on the anti-inflammatory activity of indomethacin (Indo) as well as the possible therapeutic effect of ALA on high dose Indo-induced gastropathy in female mice. Mice were treated with Indo (5 or 30 mg/kg, p.o) alone or in combination with ALA (50, 100 or 200 mg/kg, i.p). in vivo anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated by formalin-induced paw edema measured as paw thickness and edema. Gastric damage was evaluated macroscopically and histologically by scoring mucosal hemorrhage, erosion, edema and inflammation. To our results, Indo was ineffective at 5 mg/kg, but co-treatment with Indo and ALA significantly reduced paw edema, implying that ALA augmented the anti-inflammatory effect of subtherapeutic dose of Indo. However, ALA was not able to induce a further increase in the anti-inflammatory effect of Indo at 30 mg/kg. Unlike the treatment with Indo at 5 mg/kg, Indo at 30 mg/kg caused severe gastric damage that prevented by co-treatment with ALA. These results suggest that combination of ALA with NSAIDs can both increase anti-inflammatory effect and prevent NSAIDs-induced gastric damage. ALA would be promising adjuvant that can reduce dose for effective NSAID therapy, which improves safety profile of NSAIDs especially in cases long-term administration of high dose needed.

Double benefit of metformin treatment: improved bladder function in cyclophosphamide-induced cystitis and enhanced cytotoxicity in cancer cells.

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is a widely used anti-neoplastic drug; however, it leads to bladder dysfunction in the form of hemorrhagic cystitis that is a serious dose-limiting complication in cancer patients. We aimed to evaluate the protective effects of metformin (MET) in a mouse model of CP-related cystitis in parallel with its effect on CP-induced cytotoxicity in a breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231. Cystitis was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of CP (300 mg/kg), and mice were administered MET, mesna, or vehicle treatment. 24 hours after cystitis induction, the bladders were removed for histopathological analysis and ex vivo evaluation of detrusor muscle contractility. The effect of MET on the cytotoxicity of CP in MDA-MB-231 cells was evaluated as the viability of the cells via MTT assay. Histopathological evaluation confirmed that CP induced a severe cystitis, and MET partially inhibited CP-induced bladder damage. Carbachol-evoked cholinergic contractions were significantly decreased in detrusor strips of mice injected with CP only compared to control (Emax=293.67± 20.00 vs. 497.79± 21.78 mg tension/mg tissue, respectively). In CP-injected mice, treatment with 100 mg/kg MET restored cholinergic contractions (Emax=473.72±62.61 mg tension/mg tissue). In MDA-MB-231 cells, MET decreased their viability, and the combination of MET and CP caused more decrease in cell viability as compared to CP alone (p<0.05), demonstrating that MET enhances the cytotoxicity of CP in these cancer cells. Our results indicate that MET has a strong potential as a therapeutic adjuvant to prevent CP-induced cystitis while enhancing the efficacy of CP.

GGF2 is neuroprotective in a rat model of cavernous nerve injury-induced erectile dysfunction.

INTRODUCTION: Erectile dysfunction is a major complication of radical prostatectomy, commonly associated with penile neuropathy. In animal models of peripheral nerve injury, glial growth factor-2 (GGF2), a member of the neuregulin family of growth factors, has neuroprotective and neurorestorative properties, but this potential has not been established after cavernous nerve (CN) injury. AIMS: The effectiveness of GGF2 in preserving axonal integrity and recovering erectile function in a rat model of radical prostatectomy-associated CN injury. METHODS: Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent bilateral CN crush injury (BCNI) or sham surgery. Rats were administered GGF2 (0.5, 5, or 15 mg/kg) or vehicle subcutaneously 24 hour pre and 24-hour post-BCNI, and once weekly for 5 weeks. Erectile function was assessed in response to electrical stimulation of the CN. CN survival was assessed by fluorogold retrograde axonal tracing in major pelvic ganglia (MPG). Unmyelinated axons in the CNs were quantitated by electron microscopy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Erectile function recovery, CN survival, and unmyelinated CN axon preservation in response to GGF2 treatment following BCNI. RESULTS: Erectile function was decreased (P < 0.05) after BCNI, and it was improved (P < 0.05) by all doses of GGF2. The number of fluorogold-labeled cells in the MPG was reduced (P < 0.05) by BCNI and was increased (P < 0.05) by GGF2 (0.5 and 5 mg/kg). The percentage of denervated Schwann cells in the BCNI group was higher (P < 0.05) than that in the sham-treated group and was decreased (P < 0.05) in the GGF2-treated (5 mg/kg) BCNI group. In the BCNI + GGF2 (5 mg/kg) group, the unmyelinated fiber histogram demonstrated a rightward shift, indicating an increased number of unmyelinated axons per Schwann cell compared with the BCNI group. CONCLUSIONS: GGF2 promotes erectile function recovery following CN injury in conjunction with preserving unmyelinated CN fibers. Our findings suggest the clinical opportunity to develop GGF2 as a neuroprotective therapy for radical prostatectomy.

Hydroxyl fasudil, an inhibitor of Rho signaling, improves erectile function in diabetic rats: a role for neuronal ROCK.

INTRODUCTION: The pathogenesis of diabetic erectile dysfunction (ED) includes neuropathy, but the molecular basis for neurogenic ED is incompletely understood. The RhoA/ROCK pathway has been implicated in diabetic neuropathy and in ED, but its role in diabetic neurogenic ED is not known. AIMS: The aim of this study was to determine whether hydroxyl fasudil, a ROCK inhibitor, affects diabetic neuropathy-related ED. METHODS: Type 1 diabetes mellitus was induced in male rats by streptozotocin (75 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). After 8 weeks, diabetic rats were administered hydroxyl fasudil, a selective ROCK inhibitor (10 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneally) or vehicle, for 4 weeks. Age-matched control, nondiabetic, rats were treated intraperitoneally for 4 weeks with saline. At week 12, after a 2 day washout, neuro-stimulated erectile function was evaluated. Major pelvic ganglia (MPG) were collected for Western blot analysis of RhoA, ROCK-1, ROCK-2, phospho (P)-AKT (Ser(473) ), and P-phosphatase and tensin homolog (P-PTEN) (Ser(380) /Thr(382/383) ). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Effect of ROCK inhibitor hydroxyl fasudil on erectile function and ROCK/P-AKT/P-PTEN pathway in the MPG of diabetic rats. RESULTS: Erectile response was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced in diabetic rats compared with nondiabetic rats and was preserved (P < 0.05) in diabetic rats treated with hydroxyl fasudil. In diabetic rats, RhoA and ROCK-2 protein expressions in MPG were increased (P < 0.05) and remained increased in hydroxyl fasudil-treated rats. P-AKT (Ser(473) ) expression was decreased (P < 0.05), whereas P-PTEN (Ser(380) /Thr(382/383) ) expression was increased (P < 0.05) in MPG of diabetic rats compared with nondiabetic rats, and both were reversed (P < 0.05) in diabetic rats treated with hydroxyl fasudil. CONCLUSION: Improved erectile function and restored P-AKT and P-PTEN in the MPG with hydroxyl fasudil treatment suggest the role of Rho signaling via PTEN/AKT pathway in neurogenic diabetic ED.

Sustained nitric oxide (NO)-releasing compound reverses dysregulated NO signal transduction in priapism.

We evaluated the therapeutic potential of a sustained nitric oxide (NO)-releasing compound to correct the molecular hallmarks and pathophysiology of priapism, an important but poorly characterized erectile disorder. 1,5-Bis-(dihexyl-N-nitrosoamino)-2,4-dinitrobenzene (C6') and an inactive form of the compound [1,5-bis-(dihexylamino)-2,4-dinitrobenzene (C6)] were tested in neuronal cell cultures and penile lysates for NO release (Griess assay) and biological activity (cGMP production). The effect of local depot C6' or C6 was evaluated in mice with a priapic phenotype due to double neuronal and endothelial NO synthase deletion (dNOS(-/-)) or human sickle hemoglobin transgenic expression (Sickle). Changes in NO signaling molecules and reactive oxygen species (ROS) surrogates were assessed by Western blot. The physiological response after C6' treatment was assessed using an established model of electrically stimulated penile erection. C6' generated NO, increased cGMP, and dose dependently increased NO metabolites. C6' treatment reversed abnormalities in key penile erection signaling molecules, including phosphodiesterase type 5, phosphorylated endothelial nitric oxide synthase, and phosphorylated vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein. In Sickle mice, C6' also attenuated the increased ROS markers gp91(phox), 4-hydroxynonenal, and 3-nitrotyrosine. Finally, C6' corrected the excessive priapic erection response of dNOS(-/-) mice. Exogenous sustained NO release from C6' corrects pathological erectile signaling in mouse models of priapism and suggests novel approaches to human therapy.

Fibrotic protein expression profiles in penile tissue of patients with erectile dysfunction.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFß1) and related signaling pathway proteins in a large cohort of human penile tissue (HPT) samples. METHODS: HPT was collected from patients undergoing penile prosthesis implantation for erectile dysfunction (ED) and divided into the following 2 groups: postradical prostatectomy ED (RP-ED; n = 57) and organic ED (O-ED; n = 30). HPT from patients undergoing partial penectomy without ED was used as controls (CON; n = 6). Western blot analysis was performed to investigate the protein expressions of TGFß1, thrombospondin 1 (TSP1; an activator of TGFß1), fibronectin (an extracellular matrix glycoprotein induced by TGFß1), and a family of transcriptional factors activated by TGFß1 (Smad2, phospho-Smad2-serine-465/467 [pSmad2], Smad3, phospho-Smad3-serine-423/425 [pSmad3]). RESULTS: Expressions of TGFß1 and TSP1 were significantly higher in RP-ED (P <.05) and O-ED (P <.05) groups compared with that of the CON group and were not different between either ED groups. Expressions of Smad2, pSmad2, Smad3, pSmad3, and fibronectin were similar among all groups. Within the RP-ED group, a subgroup analysis showed that time from RP to penile prosthesis implantation was related to increased expression of pSmad2 (P <.05), and previous history of intracavernosal injection was related to increased expression of TGFß1 (P <.05). CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that TSP1- and TGFß1-dependent fibrotic changes occur in penile tissue in patients with ED regardless of etiology. The unchanged expression of the Smad transcriptional factors may be reconciled by a Smad-independent downstream signaling pathway transmitting TGFß1 signals.

Molecular analysis of erection regulatory factors in sickle cell disease associated priapism in the human penis.

PURPOSE: Priapism is a vasculopathy that occurs in approximately 40% of patients with sickle cell disease. Mouse models suggest that dysregulated nitric oxide synthase and RhoA/ROCK signaling as well as increased oxidative stress may contribute to the mechanisms of sickle cell disease associated priapism. We examined changes in the protein expression of nitric oxide synthase and ROCK signaling pathways, and a source of oxidative stress, NADPH oxidase, in penile erectile tissue from patients with a priapism history etiologically related and unrelated to sickle cell disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Human penile erectile tissue was obtained from 5 patients with sickle cell disease associated priapism and from 6 with priapism of other etiologies during nonemergent penile prosthesis surgery for erectile dysfunction or priapism management and urethroplasty. Tissue was also obtained from 5 control patients without a priapism history during penectomy for penile cancer. Samples were collected, immediately placed in cold buffer and then frozen in liquid nitrogen. The expression of phosphodiesterase 5, endothelial nitric oxide synthase, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, inducible nitric oxide synthase, RhoA, ROCK1, ROCK2, p47(phox), p67(phox), gp91(phox) and ß-actin were determined by Western blot analysis. Nitric oxide was measured using the Griess reaction. RESULTS: In the sickle cell disease group phosphodiesterase 5 (p <0.05), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (p <0.01) and RhoA (p <0.01) expression was significantly decreased, while gp91(phox) expression (p <0.05) was significantly increased compared to control values. In the nonsickle cell disease group endothelial nitric oxide synthase, ROCK1 and p47(phox) expression (each p <0.05) was significantly decreased compared to control values. Total nitric oxide levels were not significantly different between the study groups. CONCLUSIONS: Mechanisms of sickle cell disease associated priapism in the human penis may involve dysfunctional nitric oxide synthase and ROCK signaling, and increased oxidative stress associated with NADPH oxidase mediated signaling.

Cyclic AMP-dependent phosphorylation of neuronal nitric oxide synthase mediates penile erection.

Nitric oxide (NO) generated by neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) initiates penile erection, but has not been thought to participate in the sustained erection required for normal sexual performance. We now show that cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of nNOS mediates erectile physiology, including sustained erection. nNOS is phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) at serine(S)1412. Electrical stimulation of the penile innervation increases S1412 phosphorylation that is blocked by PKA inhibitors but not by PI3-kinase/Akt inhibitors. Stimulation of cAMP formation by forskolin also activates nNOS phosphorylation. Sustained penile erection elicited by either intracavernous forskolin injection, or augmented by forskolin during cavernous nerve electrical stimulation, is prevented by the NOS inhibitor L-NAME or in nNOS-deleted mice. Thus, nNOS mediates both initiation and maintenance of penile erection, implying unique approaches for treating erectile dysfunction.

Targeting NADPH oxidase decreases oxidative stress in the transgenic sickle cell mouse penis.

INTRODUCTION: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a state of chronic vasculopathy characterized by endothelial dysfunction and increased oxidative stress, but the sources and mechanisms responsible for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the penis are unknown. AIMS: We evaluated whether SCD activates NADPH oxidase, induces endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) uncoupling, and decreases antioxidants in the SCD mouse penis. We further tested the hypothesis that targeting NADPH oxidase decreases oxidative stress in the SCD mouse penis. METHODS: SCD transgenic (sickle) mice were used as an animal model of SCD. Hemizygous (hemi) mice served as controls. Mice received an NADPH oxidase inhibitor apocynin (10 mM in drinking water) or vehicle. Penes were excised at baseline for molecular studies. Markers of oxidative stress (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal [HNE]), sources of ROS (eNOS uncoupling and NADPH oxidase subunits p67(phox) , p47(phox) , and gp91(phox) ), and enzymatic antioxidants (superoxide dismutase [SOD]1, SOD2, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase-1 [GPx1]) were measured by Western blot in penes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sources of ROS, oxidative stress, and enzymatic antioxidants in the SCD penis. RESULTS: Relative to hemi mice, SCD increased (P<0.05) protein expression of NADPH oxidase subunits p67(phox) , p47(phox) , and gp91(phox) , 4-HNE-modified proteins, induced eNOS uncoupling, and reduced Gpx1 expression in the penis. Apocynin treatment of sickle mice reversed (P<0.05) the abnormalities in protein expressions of p47(phox) , gp91(phox) (but not p67(phox) ) and 4-HNE, but only slightly (P>0.05) prevented eNOS uncoupling in the penis. Apocynin treatment of hemi mice did not affect any of these parameters. CONCLUSION: NADPH oxidase and eNOS uncoupling are sources of oxidative stress in the SCD penis; decreased GPx1 further contributes to oxidative stress. Inhibition of NADPH oxidase upregulation decreases oxidative stress, implying a major role for NADPH oxidase as a ROS source and a potential target for improving vascular function in the SCD mouse penis.

Neuronal nitric oxide signaling regulates erection recovery after cavernous nerve injury.

PURPOSE: Nitric oxide is the major neuronal mediator of penile erection but its role in erectile function status after cavernous nerve injury is uncertain. We determined the function of neuronal nitric oxide signaling in the pathobiology of erectile function recovery after partial cavernous nerve injury using genetic and pharmacological mouse experimental paradigms. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Erectile function was evaluated in 5 to 7 wild-type and neuronal nitric oxide synthase-α knockout mice per group 1, 3 and 7 days after unilateral crush or sham injury, at day 7 in wild-type mice treated with the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME (l-nitro arginine methyl ester) (Sigma-Aldrich®) at baseline and for 6 days after unilateral crush injury. Apoptosis in the penis was evaluated by Western blot analysis of p-Akt-S473, 3-nitrotyrosine and caspase-3 after bilateral crush injury. RESULTS: Intracavernous pressure was significantly decreased at 1, 3 and 7 days in wild-type mice but only at day 1 in knockout mice after unilateral crush injury compared with sham treatment values (p <0.05). L-NAME treated wild-type mice had improved erectile function compared with the vehicle treated group at day 7 after unilateral crush injury (p <0.05). In penes p-Akt-S473 was significantly decreased in vehicle treated (p <0.05) but not in L-NAME treated wild-type mice. In penes 3-nitrotyrosine was significantly decreased in L-NAME treated wild-type and vehicle treated knockout mice (p <0.05). Caspase-3 in penes was significantly increased in vehicle treated (p <0.05) but not in L-NAME treated wild-type mice and vehicle treated knockout mice. CONCLUSIONS: Neuronal nitric oxide signaling regulates erectile function recovery early after partial cavernous nerve injury, exerting an inhibitory role via the induction of apoptotic change in penile tissue. Therapeutic strategies to improve erectile function recovery after radical prostatectomy may consider targeting pathogenic sites of nitric oxide neurobiology.

FK506 neuroprotection after cavernous nerve injury is mediated by thioredoxin and glutathione redox systems.

INTRODUCTION: Immunophilin ligands such as FK506 (FK) preserve erectile function (EF) following cavernous nerve injury (CNI), although the precise mechanisms are unclear. We examined whether the thioredoxin (Trx) and glutathione (GSH) redox systems mediate this effect after CNI. AIM: To investigate the roles of Trx reductase 2 (TrxR2) and S-Nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR) as antioxidative/nitrosative and antiapoptotic mediators of the neuroprotective effect of FK in the penis after CNI. METHODS: Adult male rats, wild-type (WT) mice, and GSNOR deficient (GSNOR -/-) mice were divided into four groups: sham surgery (CN [cavernous nerves] exposure only) + vehicle; sham surgery + FK (5 mg/kg/day/rat or 2 mg/kg/day/mouse, for 2 days, subcutaneous); CNI + vehicle; and CNI + FK. At day 4 after injury, electrically stimulated changes in intracavernosal pressure (ICP) were measured. Penises were collected for Western blot analysis of TrxR2, GSNOR, and Bcl-2, and for immunolocalization of TrxR2 and GSNOR. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: EF assessment represented by maximal ICP and total ICP in response to electrical stimulation. Evaluation of protein expression levels and distribution patterns of antioxidative/nitrosative and antiapoptotic factors in penile tissue. RESULTS: EF decreased after CNI compared with sham surgery values in both rats (P < 0.01) and WT and GSNOR -/- mice (P < 0.05). FK treatment preserved EF after CNI compared with vehicle treatment in rats (P < 0.01) and WT mice (P < 0.05) but not in GSNOR -/- mice. In rats, GSNOR (P < 0.01) and Bcl-2 (P < 0.05) expressions were significantly decreased after CNI. FK treatment in CN-injured rats restored expression of GSNOR and upregulated TrxR2 (P < 0.001) and Bcl-2 (P < 0.001) expressions compared with vehicle treatment. Localizations of proteins in the penis were observed for TrxR2 (endothelium, smooth muscle) and for GSNOR (nerves, endothelium, smooth muscle). CONCLUSIONS: The neuroprotective effect of FK in preserving EF after CNI involves antioxidative/nitrosative and antiapoptotic mechanisms mediated, to some extent, by Trx and GSH systems.

Hypercholesterolemia-induced erectile dysfunction: endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) uncoupling in the mouse penis by NAD(P)H oxidase.

INTRODUCTION: Hypercholesterolemia induces erectile dysfunction (ED) mostly by increasing oxidative stress and impairing endothelial function in the penis, but the mechanisms regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the penis are not understood. AIMS: We evaluated whether hypercholesterolemia activates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAD[P]H) oxidase in the penis, providing an initial source of ROS to induce endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) uncoupling and endothelial dysfunction resulting in ED. METHODS: Low-density-lipoprotein receptor (LDLR)-null mice were fed Western diet for 4 weeks to induce early-stage hyperlipidemia. Wild type (WT) mice fed regular chow served as controls. Mice received NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor apocynin (10 mM in drinking water) or vehicle. Erectile function was assessed in response to cavernous nerve electrical stimulation. Markers of endothelial function (phospho [P]-vasodilator-stimulated-protein [VASP]-Ser-239), oxidative stress (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal [HNE]), sources of ROS (eNOS uncoupling and NAD[P]H oxidase subunits p67(phox) , p47(phox) , and gp91(phox) ), P-eNOS-Ser-1177, and eNOS were measured by Western blot in penes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The main outcome measures are the molecular mechanisms of ROS generation and endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemia-induced ED. RESULTS: Erectile response was significantly (P<0.05) reduced in hypercholesterolemic LDLR-null mice compared with WT mice. Relative to WT mice, hypercholesterolemia increased (P<0.05) protein expressions of NAD(P)H oxidase subunits p67(phox) , p47(phox) and gp91(phox) , eNOS uncoupling, and 4-HNE-modified proteins, and reduced (P<0.05) P-VASP-Ser-239 expression in the penis. Apocynin treatment of LDLR-null mice preserved (P<0.05) maximal intracavernosal pressure, and reversed (P<0.05) the abnormalities in protein expressions of gp67(phox) and gp47(phox) , 4-HNE, P-VASP-Ser-239, and eNOS uncoupling in the penis. Apocynin treatment of WT mice did not affect any of these parameters. Protein expressions of P-eNOS-Ser-1177 and total eNOS were unaffected by hypercholesterolemia. CONCLUSION: Activated NAD(P)H oxidase in the penis is an initial source of oxidative stress resulting in eNOS uncoupling, thus providing a mechanism of eNOS uncoupling and endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemia-induced ED.

Changes in caveolin-1 expression and vasoreactivity in the aorta and corpus cavernosum of fructose and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

Hyperglycemia is a common defining feature in the development of endothelial dysfunction which plays a key role in the pathogenesis of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Caveolin-1 is the main structural component of caveolae which might be involved in the pathophysiology of macrovascular complications of diabetes. In this study we aimed to observe the effect of caveolin-1 on functional responses of aorta and corpus cavernosum in the streptozotocin and fructose-induced diabetes groups. Type 1 diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal administration of streptozotocin (60 mg/kg),. Type 2 diabetes by adding fructose in the rat's drinking water (10% (w/v)) for 8 weeks. For insulin treatment; rats were treated with insulin (6 U/kg) for 8 weeks. In Type I and Type II diabetic groups the contractile responses of corpus cavernosum strips to phenylephrine (EC(50):1.82 x 10(-5)M;1.47 x 10(-5)M, respectively)and relaxation responses to acetylcholine (EC(50):7.5 x 10(-5)M;4.48 x 10(-5)M, respectively)were significantly impaired. Contractile responses of aorticstrips to phenylephrine in diabetic groups were markedly decreased (EC(50):3.7.10(-7)M;2.61.10(-7)M respectively) and dose-dependent relaxation responses to acetylcholine were also attenuated (EC(50):3.23.10(-6)M; 2.0.10(-6)M respectively). Treatment with insulin improved the functional responses in the aorta and corpus cavernosum. Protein expression of caveolin-1 was increased in the aorta and corpus cavernosum of the diabetic groups, but this increase seen in the streptozotocin group was more significant than the fructose group. Our findings indicate that an attenuation of the functional responses in both diabetes groups were probably associated with an enhanced expression of caveolin-1, and therefore a decrease in the eNOS activity with a concomitant decrease in NO synthesis.