Changes in electroencephalography microstates are associated with reduced levels of vigilance after sleep deprivation.

Total sleep deprivation (TSD) negatively affects cognitive functions, especially vigilance attention, but studies on vigilance changes in terms of electroencephalography (EEG) microstates after TSD are limited. This study investigates the impact of TSD on vigilance attention, EEG microstates and its relationship. Thirty healthy adult males completed a psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) before, 24 h after, and 36 h after TSD while their EEG was recorded during rest. Microstate analysis revealed significant changes in the occurrence and contribution of microstate class B after TSD. Moreover, changes in the probability of transitioning between microstate classes A and D were observed, correlating with decreased vigilance. Specifically, a positive correlation was found between transitioning from class B to class C and vigilance, while a trend of negative correlation was observed between transitioning between classes A and D and vigilance. These findings indicate abnormal activity in the salience network and dorsal attention network following sleep deprivation. TSD impairs vigilance attention, as demonstrated by the effects on EEG microstate class B and the transitions between classes A and D. The study suggests its potential as an early warning indicator for predicting vigilance attention after sleep deprivation.

Mental fatigue assessment by an arbitrary channel EEG based on morphological features and LSTM-CNN.

In order to achieve more sensitive mental fatigue assessment (MFA) based on an arbitrary channel EEG, this study proposed a series of feature extraction methods that combine mathematical morphology (MM), as well as an LSTM-CNN architecture. Firstly, 37 subjects had their resting-state EEGs collected at rested wakefulness (RW) and after 24 h of sleep deprivation (SD) using a 30-channel EEG acquisition device, the RW and SD groups were regarded as the negative and positive groups of mental fatigue, respectively, and the EEG collection were further categorized into two conditions: eye-opened state (EO) and eye-closed state (EC). Then, since MM can reflect the morphological characteristics of EEG rhythms and their potentials relatively independently of the time-frequency analysis and phase calculation, the MM methods were found to better reflect the mental fatigue after SD statistically, whether for single features (ANOVA: p<0.000001), multiple features (clustering by K-means, t-test: p<0.01), or time series feature spaces (calculating CD, t-test: p<0.01) of a single channel. Finally, the LSTM-CNN enhanced the generalization ability when dealing with different single-channel EEG by combining GRUs with convolutional layers: comparing the AUCs of different architectures for MFA based on an arbitrary channel, LSTM-CNN (0.992) > LSTM network (0.94) > CNN (0.831) > MLP (0.754). Moreover, the use of MM also improved the accuracy of analyzed architectures, and the true/false positive rate (TPR/FPR) of the LSTM-CNN architecture for MFA based on an arbitrary channel reached 97.024 %/3.497 %, which provided a feasible solution for the arbitrary channel EEG-based MFA.

Effect of total sleep deprivation on effective EEG connectivity for young male in resting-state networks in different eye states.

Background: Many studies have investigated the effect of total sleep deprivation (TSD) on resting-state functional networks, especially the default mode network (DMN) and sensorimotor network (SMN), using functional connectivity. While it is known that the activities of these networks differ based on eye state, it remains unclear how TSD affects them in different eye states. Therefore, we aimed to examine the effect of TSD on DMN and SMN in different eye states using effective functional connectivity via isolated effective coherence (iCoh) in exact low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (eLORETA). Methods: Resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG) signals were collected from 24 male college students, and each participant completed a psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) while behavioral data were acquired. Each participant underwent 36-h TSD, and the data were acquired in two sleep-deprivation times (rested wakefulness, RW: 0 h; and TSD: 36 h) and two eye states (eyes closed, EC; and eyes open, EO). Changes in neural oscillations and effective connectivity were compared based on paired t-test. Results: The behavioral results showed that PVT reaction time was significantly longer in TSD compared with that of RW. The EEG results showed that in the EO state, the activity of high-frequency bands in the DMN and SMN were enhanced compared to those of the EC state. Furthermore, when compared with the DMN and SMN of RW, in TSD, the activity of DMN was decreased, and SMN was increased. Moreover, the changed effective connectivity in the DMN and SMN after TSD was positively correlated with an increased PVT reaction time. In addition, the effective connectivity in the different network (EO-EC) of the SMN was reduced in the ß band after TSD compared with that of RW. Conclusion: These findings indicate that TSD impairs alertness and sensory information input in the SMN to a greater extent in an EO than in an EC state.

Insula Connectivity Abnormalities Predict Impulsivity in Chronic Heroin Use Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Resting-State fMRI Study.

Patients with heroin use disorder (HUD) often exhibit trait impulsivity, which may be an important factor in and a good predictor of addiction. However, the factor structure of HUD trait impulsivity (motor, attentional, and nonplanning) and its neural correlates are not yet known. A total of 24 male volunteers with HUD and 16 healthy control volunteers were recruited for this cross-sectional study. The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) were employed using the insula as a seed point in an effort to understand the association between trait impulsivity and its intrinsic factors and functional connectivity (FC) between the insula and the whole brain. The HUD group in this study exhibited higher total trait impulsivity scores, motor impulsivity, and nonplanning impulsivity than the control group. Changes in FC between the right insula and the lateral occipital cortex and the right angular gyrus were significantly positively correlated with total trait impulsivity scores, motor impulsivity, and nonplanning impulsivity, whereas changes in the FC between the left insula and the left superior frontal gyrus and left frontopolar brain region were significantly negatively correlated with trait impulsivity. Thus, the insula may serve as an important biomarker for identifying trait impulsivity and its intrinsic factor structure in patients with HUDs.

Total Sleep Deprivation Triggers a Compensatory Mechanism During Conflict Monitoring Process: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials.

Sleep deprivation impairs cognitive function and is accompanied by a simultaneous compensatory effect, one of the brain's capacities to maintain function in emergency situations. However, the time course of the compensatory effect is unclear. In this study, 22 male participants completed a pronunciation working memory task that included congruent and incongruent stimuli trials with EEG recordings before and after total sleep deprivation (TSD). Behavioral performance analysis showed that after TSD, the participants' reaction time (RT) was shortened, but accuracy was reduced significantly. Analysis of event-related potential (ERP) results showed that the amplitude of N2 (an early visual ERP) was larger (i.e., more negative) after TSD than at baseline. A significant interaction between congruency and sleep condition was seen. Compared to that before TSD, the increase in amplitude of P3 (a stimulus-induced positive deflection component) under an incongruent stimulus was larger than that under a congruent stimulus after TSD. Moreover, a significant negative correlation was found between P3 amplitude and RT. Our results suggest that TSD impairs cognitive function. Meanwhile, the brain activates a compensatory mechanism after TSD, which is comprehensive during the conflict-detection and information-updating stages. This study provides a fresh viewpoint for understanding how TSD affects cognitive function.

Decrease in the P2 Amplitude of Object Working Memory after 8 h-Recovery Sleep Following 36 h-Total Sleep Deprivation: An ERP Study.

The impact of sleep deprivation on working memory can only be reversed by recovery sleep (RS). However, there are limited electrophysiological studies on the effect of RS on the improvement in working memory after sleep deprivation, and the changes in the early components of event-related potentials (ERPs) before and after RS are still unclear. Therefore, this study aims to explore the effects of RS on the earlier ERP components related to object working memory following 36 h of total sleep deprivation (TSD). Twenty healthy male participants performed an object working memory task after 36 h of TSD and after 8 h of RS. Electroencephalogram data were recorded accordingly while the task was performed. Repeated ANOVA showed that P2 amplitudes related to object working memory decreased significantly after 8 h of RS compared to after a 36 h period of TSD, but there was no significant difference from baseline (BS), which indicates a trend of recovery to the baseline state. An 8 h RS can partially improve impaired object working memory caused by TSD. However, a longer period of RS is needed for the complete recovery of cognitive function after a long period of TSD.

Total sleep deprivation reduces the table tennis anticipation performance of young men: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study.

This study explored whether and how sleep deprivation (SD) affects sport-related anticipation. Twenty table tennis players and 28 non-athletes completed a table tennis anticipation task before and after 36 h SD. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were acquired simultaneously. The results showed that, compared with the non-athletes, table tennis players had higher neural efficiency, manifested by their higher anticipation accuracy and lower frontal lobe activation. SD impaired anticipation performance, accompanied by decreased activation of the occipital and temporal lobes. Compensatory activation occurred in the left hippocampus and orbital part of the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) after SD in the table tennis player group, but not in the non-athlete group. The decreased accuracy of non-athletes was positively correlated with decreased activation of orbital part of the right IFG. This study's findings improve the understanding of the cognitive neuroscience mechanisms by which SD affects sport-related anticipation.

The detection of self-group conflicts in exercise behaviors differs with social network centrality: ERP evidence.

BACKGROUND: The influence of social norms on exercise behaviors has been explored in studies over the years. However, little is known about whether an individual's role (central or peripheral) in his or her social network, which is associated with social skills, could shift his or her susceptibility to normative effects on exercise behaviors. To that end, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded to examine the underlying cognitive mechanism of the effects of network centrality on normative social influence. METHODS: We manipulated network centrality by assigning participants to exercise support groups, with group members who were their nominated friends (high centrality) or nonnominated classmates (low centrality). Participants were asked to evaluate their willingness to engage in various exercises, after viewing discrepant group ratings (peer influence) or not viewing (no-influence). RESULTS: Peer influence evoked a larger negative-going feedback-related negativity (FRN) wave, which was linked to automatic social conflict detection, and a larger positive-going P3 wave, which was linked to subsequent conformity behavioral changes. However, effects on the FRN, not the P3, were observed only in the high-centrality group. CONCLUSION: Our results highlight the important roles of network centrality in encoding self-group exercise attitude discrepancy rather than in decision-making regarding exercise attitude adjustments. Interventions aimed at promoting exercise behaviors should be considered in a broader social environmental framework.

Disturbance of skin sensation and autism spectrum disorder: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) commonly experience aberrant skin sensation sensitivity; however, the causal relationship is not yet clear. This study uses a bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) method to explore the relationship between disturbance of skin sensation (DSS) and ASD. METHODS: Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) extracted from the summary data of genome-wide association studies were used as genetic instruments. MR was performed using the inverse-variance-weighted method, with alternate methods (e.g., weighted median, MR-Egger, simple mode, weighted mode, and MR-pleiotropy residual sum and outlier) and multiple sensitivity analyses to assess horizontal pleiotropy and remove outliers. RESULTS: The results of the analysis using six SNPs as genetic instruments showed that the DSS is associated with an increased risk of ASD (odds ratio = 1.126, 95% confidence interval = 1.029-1.132; p = .010). The results of the sensitivity analyses were robust with no evidence of pleiotropy. The reverse MR analyses showed no causal effects of ASD on DSS. CONCLUSION: This study's findings suggest that DSS has potential causal effects on ASD, whereas ASD has no effect on DSS. Thus, skin sensitivity may represent a behavioral marker of ASD, by which some populations could be subtyped in the future.

This study examines whether disturbance of skin sensation (DSS) has potential causal effects on autism spectrum disorder (ASD) using the bidirectional Mendelian randomization method. We believe our study makes a significant contribution to the literature because it provides more evidence of the causal effect of skin sensory abnormalities, such as touch, temperature, and tactile sensation, in ASD. Additionally, the findings are a reminder that the discovery of DSS as a biomarker in some ASD patients provides an objective and quantifiable indicator of the clinically relevant course of ASD, which can help to identify targets for intervention or treatment.

Effects of carbohydrate drinks ingestion on executive function in athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background: Carbohydrates are often used as boosters for endurance and high-intensity exercise. However, it is unclear whether carbohydrate drinks intake before or during exercise can affect specific domains of cognitive function, such as Executive Function (EF). Methods: Following the guidance of PRISMA 2020, we searched six major databases including PubMed, WOS, SPORTDiscus, Cochrane, Embase, and Scopus. Outcomes were presented in the form of Reaction Time (RT), Accuracy (ACC), and Scores (Score) for performing EF tests. Effect sizes were calculated from the test results of EF and expressed as standardized mean differences (SMDs). After analyzing the overall results, we performed subgroup analyses based on the athletes' program characteristics. Results: After retrieving a total of 5,355 articles, ten randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were identified and included in this review. The overall results showed that the intake of carbohydrate drinks before or during exercise did not have a significant effect on the reduction of EF after exercise (ACC (-0.05 [-0.27, 0.18]); RT (-0.18 [-0.45, 0.09]); Score (0.24 [-0.20, 0.68])). The subgroup analyses based on open skill sports and close skill sports also showed invalid results, but the results of RT ended up with different preference (ACC of open skill sports athletes (-0.10 [-0.34, 0.14]); RT of open skill athletes (-0.27 [-0.60, 0.07]); RT of close skill athletes (0.29 [-0.24, 0.82])). Conclusion: The intake of 6-12% of single or mixed carbohydrates before or during exercise was not significantly effective in reducing the decline in EF after exercise. Our findings may have been influenced by the type of intervention, dose, mode of administration, or individual variability of the included subjects.

Total sleep deprivation impairs visual selective attention and triggers a compensatory effect: evidence from event-related potentials.

Many studies have demonstrated the impairment of sustained attention due to total sleep deprivation (TSD). However, it remains unclear whether and how TSD affects the processing of visual selective attention. In the current study, 24 volunteers performed a visual search task before and after TSD over a period of 36 h while undergoing spontaneous electroencephalography. Paired-sample t-tests of behavioral performance revealed that, compared with baseline values, the participants showed lower accuracy and higher variance in response time in visual search tasks performed after TSD. Analysis of the event-related potentials (ERPs) showed that the mean amplitude of the N2-posterior-contralateral (N2pc) difference wave after TSD was less negative than that at baseline and the mean amplitude of P3 after TSD was more positive than that at baseline. Our findings suggest that TSD significantly attenuates attentional direction/orientation processing and triggers a compensatory effect in the parietal brain to partially offset the impairments. These findings provide new evidence and improve our understanding of the effects of sleep loss.

Effects of health qigong exercise on sleep and life quality in patients with drug abuse.

Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Health Qigong (HQ) exercise on the subjective and objective sleep quality and the quality of life in male patients with drug abuse who received treatment at a mandatory drug rehabilitation residential institution. Methods: Ninety male patients (mean age, 36.85 ± 8.72 y) were included and randomly divided into the Health Qigong (HQ) group, aerobic exercise (AE) group, or control group. The participants in the HQ and AE groups exercised four times a week for 1 hour per session for 12 weeks, while the control group maintained their original lifestyle. The following parameters were recorded before and after exercise: Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI); SF-36; and total sleep time, sleep efficiency, sleep latency, deep sleep time, deep sleep rate, light sleep time, and light sleep rate using actigraphy. Results: Health Qigong improved the subjective sleep quality, objective sleep quality, and quality of life after a 12-week intervention. Considering the subjective sleep quality, Health Qigong helped improve several aspects of the PSQI, including the overall sleep quality (p < 0.01), sleep latency (p < 0.01), sleep duration (p < 0.01), sleep latency (p < 0.01), sleep disturbance (p < 0.01), and day dysfunction (p < 0.01). In relation to the objective sleep quality, Health Qigong improved the total sleep time (p < 0.01), sleep efficiency (p < 0.01), sleep latency (p < 0.01), deep and light sleep rate (p < 0.01). Considering the quality of life, Health Qigong helped improve the role-physical (p < 0.01), general health (p < 0.01), bodily pain (p < 0.01), and mental health (p < 0.01) aspects of SF-36. Conclusion: Health Qigong may be an effective approach to improve the subjective and objective quality of sleep and life quality of patients with drug abuse.

Cognitive Load Moderates the Effects of Total Sleep Deprivation on Working Memory: Evidence from Event-Related Potentials.

Purpose: The function of working memory (WM) is impaired by total sleep deprivation (TSD) and cognitive load. However, it is unclear whether the load modulates the effect of TSD on WM. We conducted a pilot study to investigate the effects of 36 h of TSD on WM under different load levels. Materials and methods: Twenty-two male students aged 18-25 years were enrolled, who underwent two types of sleep conditions (baseline and 36 h TSD), where they performed two N-back WM tasks (one-back task and two-back task) with simultaneous electroencephalography recordings. Results: Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that, with the increasing load, the reaction time increased and the accuracy decreased. After TSD, the correct number per unit time decreased. The significant interaction effect of the P3 amplitudes between the load level and the sleep condition showed that the reduction in the amplitude of P3 in the two-back task due to TSD was more obvious than that in the one-back task. Conclusions: Our results provided evidence for the moderation of load on the impairment of TSD on WM. The degree of TSD-induced impairment for a higher load was greater than that for a lower load. The current study provides new insights into the mechanisms by which sleep deprivation affects cognitive function.

The Effect of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation on the Recovery of Sleep Quality after Sleep Deprivation Based on an EEG Analysis.

Acute sleep deprivation can reduce the cognitive ability and change the emotional state in humans. However, little is known about how brain EEGs and facial expressions change during acute sleep deprivation (SD). Herein, we employed 34 healthy adult male subjects to undergo acute SD for 36 h, during which, their emotional states and brain EEG power were measured. The subjects were divided randomly into electronic stimulation and control groups. We performed TDCS on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for 2 mA and 30 min in the TDCS group. These results indicated that the proportion of disgusted expressions in the electrical stimulation group was significantly less than the controls after 36 h post-acute SD, while the proportion of neutral expressions was increased post-restorative sleep. Furthermore, the electrical stimulation group presented a more significant impact on slow wave power (theta and delta) than the controls. These findings indicated that emotional changes occurred in the subjects after 36 h post-acute SD, while electrical stimulation could effectively regulate the cortical excitability and excitation inhibition balance after acute SD.

Reduced Resting-State EEG Power Spectra and Functional Connectivity after 24 and 36 Hours of Sleep Deprivation.

Total sleep deprivation (TSD) leads to cognitive decline; however, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG) changes after TSD remain unclear. In this study, 42 healthy adult participants were subjected to 36 h of sleep deprivation (36 h TSD), and resting-state EEG data were recorded at baseline, after 24 h of sleep deprivation (24 h TSD), and after 36 h TSD. The analysis of resting-state EEG at baseline, after 24 h TSD, and after 36 h TSD using source localization analysis, power spectrum analysis, and functional connectivity analysis revealed a decrease in alpha-band power and a significant increase in delta-band power after TSD and impaired functional connectivity in the default mode network, precuneus, and inferior parietal lobule. The cortical activities of the precuneus, inferior parietal lobule, and superior parietal lobule were significantly reduced, but no difference was found between the 24 h and 36 h TSD groups. This may indicate that TSD caused some damage to the participants, but this damage temporarily slowed during the 24 h to 36 h TSD period.

Recovery sleep attenuates impairments in working memory following total sleep deprivation.

Introduction: The detrimental effects of sleep deprivation (SD) on cognitive function and quality of life are well known, and sleep disturbances are a major physical and mental health issue worldwide. Working memory plays an important role in many complex cognitive processes. Therefore, it is necessary to identify strategies that can effectively counteract the negative effects of SD on working memory. Methods: In the present study, we utilized event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate the restorative effects of 8 h of recovery sleep (RS) on working memory impairments induced by total sleep deprivation for 36 h. We analyzed ERP data from 42 healthy male participants who were randomly assigned to two groups. The nocturnal sleep (NS) group completed a 2-back working memory task before and after normal sleep for 8 h. The sleep deprivation (SD) group completed a 2-back working memory task before and after 36 h of total sleep deprivation (TSD) and after 8 h of RS. Electroencephalographic data were recorded during each task. Results: The N2 and P3 components-which are related to working memory-exhibited low-amplitude and slow-wave characteristics after 36 h of TSD. Additionally, we observed a significant decrease in N2 latency after 8 h of RS. RS also induced significant increases in the amplitude of the P3 component and in the behavioral indicators. Discussion: Overall, 8 h of RS attenuated the decrease in working memory performance caused by 36 h of TSD. However, the effects of RS appear to be limited.

Altered Postcentral Connectivity after Sleep Deprivation Correlates to Impaired Risk Perception: A Resting-State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies revealed that sleep deprivation (SD) impairs risk perception and leads to poor decision-making efficiency. However, how risk perception is related to brain regions' communication after SD has not been elucidated. In this study, we investigated the neuropsychological mechanisms of SD-impaired risk perception. METHODS: Nineteen healthy male adults were recruited and underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging during a state of rested wakefulness and after nearly 36 h of total SD. They then completed the balloon analog risk task, which was used to measure the risk perception ability of risky decision-making. Regional homogeneity (ReHo) and voxel-wise functional connectivity were used to investigate neurobiological changes caused by SD. Correlation analysis was used to investigate the relationship between changes in ReHo, function, and risk perception. RESULTS: At the behavioral level, risk perception decreased after 36 h of SD. At the neural level, SD induced a significant increase in ReHo in the right postcentral gyrus and was positively correlated with risk perception changes. The functional connectivity between the right postcentral gyrus, left medial temporal gyrus, and right inferior temporal gyrus was enhanced. Critically, increased right postcentral gyrus and right inferior temporal gyrus connectivity positively correlated with changes in risk perception. CONCLUSIONS: SD impairs the risk perception associated with altered postcentral connectivity. The brain requires more energy to process and integrate sensory and perceptual information after SD, which may be one possible reason for decreased risk perception ability after SD.

Decreased Functional Connectivity of Brain Networks in the Alpha Band after Sleep Deprivation Is Associated with Decreased Inhibitory Control in Young Male Adults.

Sleep deprivation leads to reduced inhibitory control in individuals. However, the underlying neural mechanisms are poorly understood. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate the effects of total sleep deprivation (TSD) on inhibitory control and their neuroelectrophysiological mechanisms from the perspective of the time course of cognitive processing and brain network connectivity, using event-related potential (ERP) and resting-state functional connectivity techniques. Twenty-five healthy male participants underwent 36 h of TSD (36-h TSD), completing Go/NoGo tasks and resting-state data acquisition before and after TSD; their behavioral and electroencephalogram data were recorded. Compared to baseline, participants' false alarms for NoGo stimuli increased significantly (t = -4.187, p < 0.001) after 36-h TSD. ERP results indicated that NoGo-N2 negative amplitude increased and latency was prolonged (t = 4.850, p < 0.001; t = -3.178, p < 0.01), and NoGo-P3 amplitude significantly decreased and latency was prolonged (t = 5.104, p < 0.001; t = -2.382, p < 0.05) after 36-h TSD. Functional connectivity analysis showed that the connectivity of the default mode and visual networks in the high alpha band was significantly reduced after TSD (t = 2.500, p = 0.030). Overall, the results suggest that the negative amplitude increase in N2 after 36-h TSD may reveal that more attention and cognitive resources are invested after TSD; the significant decrease in P3 amplitude may indicate the impairment of advanced cognitive processing. Further functional connectivity analysis indicated impairment of the brain's default mode network and visual information processing after TSD.

Total sleep deprivation selectively impairs motor preparation sub-stages in visual search task: Evidence from lateralized readiness potentials.

Introduction: Many studies have provided evidence of a damage effect triggered by total sleep deprivation (TSD). However, it remains unclear whether the motor preparation processing is affected by TSD. Methods: In the current study, 23 volunteers performed a stimulus-response compatibility visual search task before and after TSD while undergoing spontaneous electroencephalography (EEG). Results: Repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed that: Compared with that at baseline, the visual search task's accuracy decreased after TSD, while the response time variance increased significantly. The peak amplitude of the stimulus-locked lateralized readiness potential (LRP) induced by a compatible stimulus was significantly more negative than that induced by an incompatible stimulus before TSD, whereas this difference was not significant after TSD. However, when taking sleep status into consideration, there were no significant main or interaction effects on response-locked LRPs. Discussion: Our findings suggest that TSD damages visual search behavior, selectively impairs the earlier sub-stages of motor preparation (sensory integration). These findings will provide a new perspective for understanding the effects of sleep loss.

Development of social anxiety cognition scale for college students: Basing on Hofmann's model of social anxiety disorder.

Introduction: To develop the Chinese version of the Social Anxiety Cognition Scale for College Students (SACS-CS) based on Hofmann's model of social anxiety disorder and examine its reliability and validity. Methods: Based on literature analysis and structured interviews, a theoretical model was constructed and behavioral examples were collected. According to the results of participants' and experts' evaluations, the initial SACS-CS was developed. The study data were collected from a total of 500 valid participants, randomly divided into two samples. Sample 1 (n = 200) and sample 2 (n = 300) were considered for exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), respectively. Internal reliability and validity were examined using all 500 participants, and temporal reliability was established using sample 3 (n = 70), who completed the scale again after 4 weeks. Results: The SACS-CS consists of 21 items, grouped under four factors: self-perception, social skills, emotional control, and cost estimation. The four-factor model fits well. The internal consistency coefficient of the scale and the four factors ranged from 0.87 to 0.96, and the test-retest reliability ranged from 0.76 to 0.84. The scores of the scale and the four factors were significantly correlated with the score of the Interaction Anxiousness Scale (r = 0.54-0.64). Discussion: The SACS-CS possesses good reliability and validity and can be applied in the cognitive assessment of college students' social anxiety. The scale could help people with different social anxiety disorder conditions receive more personalized interventions.