Cardiovascular disease in central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps): 54 cases (2007-2022).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical features, histopathologic lesions, and outcome of cardiovascular disease in central bearded dragons. ANIMALS: 54 bearded dragons. METHODS: Retrospective evaluation of captive bearded dragons with antemortem imaging or postmortem diagnosis of cardiovascular disease from 2007 to 2022 from 6 hospitals. RESULTS: The total prevalence of cardiovascular disease was 3.3% (54/1,655). Physical examination findings were available in 46 cases with change in mentation being the most common finding (n = 28/46 [60.9%]), followed by dehydration (17/46 [37%]), palpable coelomic mass (13/46 [28.3%]), dyspnea (10/46 [21.7%]), and sunken eyes (10/46 [21.7%)]. Doppler auscultation revealed an arrhythmia in 5/34 (14.7%) animals. Diagnostic imaging was only performed on 21 animals, and 10 (47.6%) had cardiovascular abnormalities described. In total, 84 cardiovascular diagnoses were found in 54 animals. The most common diagnosis was myocarditis (n = 14) followed by aneurysms (11), pericardial effusion (9), atherosclerosis (7), epicarditis (7), and myocardial degeneration/necrosis (7). Overall, 62 causes of death were identified in 52 cases, with cardiovascular disease being the most common (n = 18/52 [34.5%]). Only 3/54 animals were diagnosed with congestive heart failure. Animals with aneurysms were more likely to die to due cardiovascular disease compared to other types of cardiovascular diagnoses (OR, 43.75; 95% CI, 4.88 to 392.65; P < .001). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Diagnosis of cardiovascular disease in bearded dragons is challenging given the inconsistent clinical presentation; however, it should remain a differential in animals with nonspecific signs of illness. Antemortem diagnostics are recommended in suspected cases, including diagnostic imaging. Of the cardiovascular diseases described, aneurysms most often contributed to clinical demise.

CLINICAL AND HISTOPATHOLOGIC OCULAR FINDINGS IN AQUARIUM-HOUSED COWNOSE RAYS (RHINOPTERA BONASUS).

Cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) are susceptible to ocular disease with their prominent globes, but despite being popular animals housed in aquaria, there is little published information about their normal ocular anatomy and common pathologic ocular findings. A total of 63 live cownose rays (CNR) from three unrelated, separately housed groups had ocular examinations, and 5 adult rays were selected for ocular ultrasound. All examinations were performed out of the water, and most without anesthesia. Clinical findings were described, categorized, and scored by severity. Sixty-two of 63 rays (123 eyes) had clinical abnormalities, including 110 eyes with corneal pathology (mild = 76, moderate/severe = 34) and 74 eyes with intraocular pathology (mild = 44, moderate/severe = 30). Grey-to-white corneal opacities were the most common pathology (n = 58 rays/100 eyes) followed by cataracts (n = 41 rays/58 eyes), then persistent (or dysplastic) pupillary membranes (n = 14 rays/15 eyes). Most pathologic findings appeared inactive, but one aquarium had several CNR with active ocular pathology. There was a significant association between the diagnosis of moderate/severe corneal and intraocular pathology with age (P = 0.008 and P = 0.014, respectively) and weight (P = 0.001 and P = 0.039, respectively), as well as moderate/severe corneal pathology and group sampled (P = 0.03). There were no other significant variables identified. Additionally, histopathology of 14 eyes (11 rays) from two different facilities were examined, with keratitis (n = 8) and uveitis (n = 2) as the most common lesions. This study shows a high prevalence of pathologic ocular findings in cownose ray eyes with heavier adults more likely to be affected than lighter juveniles. Comprehensive ocular evaluation is important in this species and serial ocular exams and future studies should be pursued to monitor ocular disease progression and better understand possible etiologies.

INTRAOCULAR PRESSURES OF AQUARIUM-HOUSED COWNOSE RAYS (RHINOPTERA BONASUS) WITH NORMAL AND ABNORMAL OPHTHALMIC EXAMS.

Cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) are common elasmobranchs in zoos and aquaria; however, there is a lack of published information regarding ocular findings in this species. Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured in a total of 52 cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) from two unrelated aquaria (n = 22 from A1, n = 30 from A2) using a TonoVet rebound tonometer on two settings (dog = D, and unidentified species = P) as part of a full ophthalmologic examination. Adult (n = 38) and juvenile (n = 14) rays were sampled out of water briefly in sternal recumbency. Intraocular pressure (mean ± SD [range]) in the D setting (9.10 ± 2.57 [4-18] mmHg) was higher than the P setting (5.21 ± 2.32 [0-12] mmHg) (P<0.001). Statistical analysis revealed no difference in IOP between right and left eyes, and no correlation between body weight and IOP. No differences in IOP between sex, age group, and location were identified in either setting. However, a significant difference was observed between levels of severity of corneal disease in IOP D setting (P=0.006) and P setting (P=0.024), and levels of severity of intraocular disease in IOP D setting (P=0.034) only. This study provides baseline IOP values using rebound tonometry in aquarium-housed cownose rays with apparent corneal and intraocular lesions and reveals that the D setting may be more sensitive in identifying IOP changes in eyes with intraocular disease.

HEMATOLOGY AND PLASMA CHEMISTRY COMPARISONS AMONG JUVENILE AMERICAN BLACK BEARS (URSUS AMERICANUS) UNDERGOING REHABILITATION.

The American black bear (Ursus americanus) is an opportunistic and adaptable species with high rehabilitation success rates. Injured, ill, and orphaned bears across the southeastern United States are examined and treated at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine followed by rehabilitation at Appalachian Bear Rescue (ABR). Hematology and biochemistry reference ranges exist for healthy adult black bears; however, most bears presenting to ABR are young and of variable health status. Thus, further investigation into the difference of blood values at varying ages and presentations is warranted. ABR records from 1996 to 2022 included 106 bears with completed hematology and plasma biochemistry panels (22 paired samples at intake and release, 84 at intake only). Intake-only samples consisted of 12 neonates (<3 mon old), 64 cubs (3-12 mon), and 30 yearlings (1-2 yr). Bears presented as orphaned neonates (22%), orphaned cubs (45%), malnourished yearlings (24%), and injured/ill (9%) during fall (16%), winter (13%), spring (32%), and summer (39%). Changes in hematology and plasma biochemistry results between intake and release included an increase in hematocrit and glucose. Injured/ill bears presented with higher total leukocyte count (WBC), absolute neutrophils (ABS segs), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and creatine kinase (P < 0.05). Positive correlation between ALT, AST, proteins, and blood urea nitrogen and negative correlation between absolute lymphocytes and alkaline phosphatase were noted with age. Both WBC and ABS segs were lower during winter (P < 0.05). Understanding what factors affect juvenile black bear blood values improves clinical expectations and evaluation upon intake, clinical evaluation, and treatment.

Butorphanol-Azaperone-Medetomidine Is as Safe and Effective as Nalbuphine-Azaperone-Medetomidine for Immobilization of Juvenile American Black Bears (Ursus americanus).

Immobilization kits including butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine (BAM) and nalbuphine-azaperone-medetomidine can provide effective, safe, and easy-to-use protocols in bears. Nalbuphine-azaperone-medetomidine is not commercially available but may be useful for wildlife agencies because it does not contain controlled substances. This study directly compared BAM to nalbuphine-azaperone-medetomidine immobilization in 10 juvenile healthy black bears (10 mo old; four females, six males) undergoing prerelease examinations after rehabilitation. Bears were immobilized via remote delivery of 1 mL of BAM (n=5) or nalbuphine-azaperone-medetomidine (n=5) intramuscularly in the shoulder during December (randomized, blinded trial). Bears were intubated, monitored with an electrocardiogram, pulse oximeter, capnograph, noninvasive blood pressure cuff, and rectal thermometer, and underwent physical examination, sample collection, morphometrics, and ear-tag placement. Induction, physiologic, and recovery parameters were recorded, including arterial blood gas analysis. The anesthetic agents were antagonized with atipamezole and naltrexone. There were no differences between protocols in induction or recovery times. There were no differences between protocols in heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature, oxygen saturation, end-tidal CO2, mean arterial pressure, or blood gas analysis or any differences between male and female bears in any parameters. Bears were hypertensive and normoxemic with low oxygen saturation via pulse oximeter, but all recovered smoothly and were released within 2 h of recovery. This study supports that nalbuphine-azaperone-medetomidine is clini-cally as safe and effective as BAM in American black bears.

Retrospective evaluation of wobbly hedgehog syndrome in 49 African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris): 2000-2020.

OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively evaluate the prevalence and clinical progression of wobbly hedgehog syndrome (WHS) and concurrent incidence of neoplasia in a cohort of African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 49 hedgehogs. CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND PROCEDURES: Medical records of hedgehogs from 7 institutions across the US over a 20-year period (2000 to 2020) were retrospectively reviewed. Inclusion criteria were hedgehogs of any sex or age with postmortem CNS histopathology consistent with WHS. Collected data included sex, age at onset and euthanasia, major histopathologic findings, reported neurologic clinical signs, and treatments administered. RESULTS: 24 males and 25 females were included. Fifteen of 49 (31%) individuals had subclinical WHS with no reported antemortem neurologic clinical signs. In neurologically affected (clinical) hedgehogs (n = 34), the mean ± SD age at onset was 3.3 ± 1.5 years with a median (range) time from onset to euthanasia of 51 days (1 to 319 days). In neurologically affected hedgehogs, the most commonly reported clinical signs were ataxia (n = 21) and pelvic limb paresis (16) and the most commonly administered treatment was meloxicam (13). Overall, 31 of 49 (63%) hedgehogs had a concurrent histopathologic diagnosis of neoplasia outside of the CNS. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The prognosis for hedgehogs with WHS is poor. No treatment had a significant effect on survival time, and neoplasia was a common comorbidity in the current cohort. A small but clinically relevant subset of neurologically normal hedgehogs had a histopathologic diagnosis of WHS.

MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY OF FREE-RANGING AMERICAN BLACK BEARS (URSUS AMERICANUS) UNDERGOING REHABILITATION IN EASTERN TENNESSEE, USA, 1996-2021.

Free-ranging American black bears (Ursus americanus) often share habitat with humans and domestic animals, predisposing them to anthropogenic conflicts. Rehabilitation under professional care is a management option for orphaned, injured, and/or ill bears. Across several southeastern states, rescued bears are assessed and treated at the University of Tennessee and rehabilitated at Appalachian Bear Rescue (ABR). Records from 1996-2021 showed 337 bears (170 males, 166 females, 1 unknown) from nine states were admitted to ABR. Three bears were admitted twice, resulting in 340 admissions (42 neonates <3 mo old, 206 cubs 3-12 mo, 87 yearlings 1-2 yr, and 5 adults >2 yr). Bears presented as orphans (58%), malnourished (24%), injured or ill (12%), or confiscated/other (6%). Individuals were returned to the wild (85%); died or were euthanized (12%); or were placed into professional care (3%). Of released bears, 195 had complete medical records available for evaluation; 31% were healthy upon intake while the remaining were treated successfully for malnutrition and internal parasites (49%), orthopedic (9%) and soft tissue injuries (5%), or other diseases (5%). Causes of death determined during necropsies performed (n=30) were classified as trauma (50%), developmental (13%), undetermined (13%), malnutrition (13%), infectious or inflammatory (7%), and toxicosis (3%). Despite the lack of maternal care and high prevalence of malnutrition and trauma, most bears recovered to release with appropriate husbandry and medical care. This study provides a foundation for research to further improve care of rehabilitating black bears.

Clinical disease and treatment of Leptospira kirschneri sv Grippotyphosa in a Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae).

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 12-year-old sexually intact male zoo-managed Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) was evaluated for a 3-day history of vomiting, hyporexia, and lethargy. Radiographs were supportive of gastrointestinal obstruction, and an exploratory laparotomy was performed. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Diffuse tan foci were present on the liver parenchyma, and the tiger became icteric throughout the procedure. Hepatic histopathology and immunohistochemistry resulted in a diagnosis of leptospirosis. Serum microagglutination testing for Leptospira spp antibody titers were positive for L kirschneri serovar Grippotyphosa, rising from 1:400 to 1:3,200 in 2 days. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: The tiger was treated with antimicrobials, ursodiol, and mirtazapine, and increased biosecurity measures were instituted. Free-ranging wildlife on grounds were trapped, euthanized, and submitted for necropsy to screen for disease vectors. The tiger's urine was intermittently opportunistically collected from the enclosure and remained PCR assay negative for Leptospira spp until being positive once again on day 595. Although the tiger was without clinical signs at that time, antimicrobial therapy and increased biosecurity protocols were instituted a second time until urinary Leptospira shedding was confirmed to have stopped. By 1,071 days after initial presentation, the tiger remained nonclinical, with no additional urinary shedding episodes. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: While domestic and nondomestic free-ranging felids have been reported as subclinical Leptospira spp carriers, this report indicates the clinical importance of leptospirosis when a tiger presents with generalized gastrointestinal signs and icterus. Due to the zoonotic potential, biosecurity measures are necessary. This patient had a clinically successful outcome with antimicrobial therapy and supportive care.

MEASUREMENT OF INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE USING REBOUND TONOMETRY IN ANESTHETIZED PERUVIAN FUR SEALS (ARCTOCEPHALUS AUSTRALIS) FROM PUNTA SAN JUAN, PERU.

Ocular disease in pinnipeds under human care is well described, and intraocular pressure (IOP) can be impacted by a variety of ophthalmic conditions. Species-specific reference parameters from clinically normal animals are instrumental for understanding how ophthalmic diseases may impact ocular pressures. IOP measurements were obtained using rebound tonometry from free-ranging Peruvian fur seals (Arctocephalus australis unnamed subspecies) at Punta San Juan, Peru, over a 6-yr period (2010-2016). Retrospective data obtained from 108 (81 adults and 27 neonates comprising 69 females and 39 males) anesthetized fur seals with normal anterior segment ophthalmic examinations was included in the analysis. Differences in IOP from each eye were compared to categorical variables (age, year, sex, restraint) using an independent-samples t test. All univariate results with a significance of P < 0.05 were included in multivariate analysis. Of the 13 general linear models evaluated, the top two for both the right and the left eye included age class when all variables were evaluated simultaneously. Neonates had significantly lower IOP values than adults in both the right eye (17.5 mm Hg; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 14.0-21.1 mm Hg compared to 33.5 mm Hg; 95% CI: 31.0-36.1 mm Hg, respectively) and the left eye (18.4 mm Hg; 95% CI: 14.4-22.5 mm Hg compared to 32.3 mm Hg; 95% CI: 29.3-35.3 mm Hg, respectively). Anesthesia method was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). This is the first report of normal IOP measurements for any fur seal species. Described data can be used to improve diagnosis and management of ocular alterations in pinnipeds.

Natural Canine Distemper Virus Infection in Linnaeus's 2-Toed Sloths (Choloepus didactylus).

An outbreak of canine distemper virus in a private zoo in eastern Tennessee in July 2016 led to fatal clinical disease in 5 adult, wild-caught Linnaeus's 2-toed sloths (Choloepus didactylus). Clinical signs included hyporexia, lethargy, mucopurulent nasal discharge, and oral and facial ulcers. At necropsy, affected animals had crusts and ulcers on the lips, nose, tongue, and oral cavity. Microscopically, all sloths had widespread, random, hepatic necrosis; lymphoid depletion; and bronchointerstitial pneumonia. The central nervous system did not contain gross or histopathologic lesions in any of the 5 sloths, although immunoreactivity for viral antigen was present within vessel walls. Epithelial cells and histiocytes within numerous organs contained intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusions and occasional syncytial cells. Canine distemper virus was confirmed with immunohistochemistry and virus isolation. Viral sequencing identified the novel American-4 strain prevalent in eastern Tennessee wildlife. This is the first pathologic characterization of canine distemper virus infection in sloths (family Choloepodidae, order Pilosa) and emphasizes the significant morbidity and mortality in this species.

OBJECTIVE GAIT ANALYSIS IN HUMBOLDT PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS HUMBOLDTI) USING A PRESSURE-SENSITIVE WALKWAY.

Assessment of pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other causes of lameness in penguins can be challenging. Subjective gait analysis using visual observation and response to analgesic therapy can be affected by observer variation and caregiver placebo bias. A pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW), however, allows for objective gait analysis and assessment of analgesic therapeutic response. In this study, a 3-m-long PSW was used to analyze gait in 21 adult Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Medical record reviews and comprehensive examinations were performed on all penguins; five penguins were considered abnormal, with either right-sided (n = 3) or bilateral historical lameness-causing disease (n = 2) and were analyzed separately from the normal data set. All penguins walked across the PSW four times and gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each penguin. Statistical comparisons were made between right and left feet, sexes, and normal and abnormal penguins for each gait parameter. Among normal penguins, there were no significant differences between feet or sex. Left step width was shorter in abnormal penguins than that of normal penguins. Study results established baseline values for Humboldt penguins. This will allow objective monitoring of progression and response to therapy in penguin lameness cases, both current and future. The data also provide a foundation to compare gait parameters with other penguin populations and species.

Evaluation of a pressure sensitive walkway for objective gait analysis in normal and arthritic domestic ducks (Cairina moschata domestica).

Objective gait evaluation with a pressure sensitive walkway (PSW) has been used to assess welfare of poultry and to assess lameness and response to therapy in domestic mammals. Objective gait analysis of birds with lameness due to pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other common diseases could provide non-biased assessment and therapeutic monitoring for zoo clinicians. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of a PSW for objective gait analysis in normal domestic ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) and those with experimentally induced arthritis. Eighteen healthy adult ducks walked across the PSW four times in each experiment at each time point. For experiment 1, gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each duck (time 0). For experiment 2, six of these ducks were randomly selected, anesthetized, and administered a unilateral intra-tarsal injection of monosodium urate solution to induce arthritis. Serial PSW trials were repeated at 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 24 hours post-injection. Gait parameters were calculated and compared at each time point, including baseline at time 0. Among the normal ducks, there were no significant differences between right and left feet for any gait parameter. Maximum force and impulse were significantly lower for the affected limb at the 3- and 4-hour time points in ducks with unilateral induced arthritis. This asymmetry was resolved by 8 hours post injection. This PSW transient arthritis model allows for objective assessment of lameness in domestic ducks with maximum force and impulse serving as the most sensitive gait parameters for lameness detection. This method has potential as a model to assess analgesic efficacy for zoo-housed waterfowl and other avian species.

Analgesic Efficacy of Tramadol Compared With Meloxicam in Ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) Evaluated by Ground-Reactive Forces.

The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of tramadol and meloxicam in an induced, temporary arthritis model in ducks as assessed by ground-reactive forces measured by a pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW) system. Twelve ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) were randomly separated into 3 equal groups of 4 birds each: water control, tramadol treatment, and meloxicam treatment. Baseline measurements were collected by having all ducks walk along a 3-m-long PSW in a custom-built corral before anesthesia and induction of arthritis. Arthritis was induced in all groups through injection, under anesthesia, of a 3% monosodium urate (MSU) solution into the intertarsal joint. One hour after MSU injection, birds were orally gavage fed 1 mL of tap water (control), tramadol (30 mg/kg), or meloxicam (1 mg/kg). After treatments, all ducks were reevaluated on the PSW at 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 24 hours post-MSU injection. The difference in maximum force was significantly greater in the control group than in both the tramadol- (P = .006) and meloxicam-treated (P = .03) individuals. Post hoc comparisons revealed differences between control and treated birds occurred only at the 3- and 4-hour time points after administration. No differences were found in the absolute difference in maximum force between tramadol- and meloxicam-treated birds at any time point (P > .05). Results of this study support the hypothesis that tramadol (30 mg/kg PO) and meloxicam (1 mg/kg PO) improve certain objective variables in an induced arthritis model in ducks. Our findings also support studies in other avian species that determined that both tramadol and meloxicam are effective analgesic drugs in some birds.

EFFECTS OF OXYGEN AND ISOFLURANE ANESTHESIA ON HEMOLYMPH GAS ANALYSIS AND RIGHTING REFLEX OF ASIAN FOREST (HETEROMETRUS LONGIMANUS) AND DICTATOR SCORPIONS (PANDINUS DICTATOR).

Large arachnids are commonly managed under professional care, and anesthesia is occasionally required for physical examination and diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Anesthetic responses and hemolymph gas analysis have been studied previously in spiders, but scorpions have yet to be investigated. This study measured hemolymph gas values with an i-STAT point of care blood gas analyzer in healthy adult Asian forest scorpions (Heterometrus longimanus = HL, n = 8) and dictator scorpions (Pandinus dictator = PD, n = 12) breathing: 1) room air (RA), 2) 100% oxygen for 10 min in a chamber (OX), and 3) 5% isoflurane and oxygen (ISO) in a chamber until induction or loss of righting reflex. All scorpions recovered without complications, and there were no cartridge failures. Analysis of hemolymph gas values revealed that pH was lower in OX compared with RA and ISO and was lower in PD compared with HL scorpions. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide did not differ between inhaled gases but was higher in PD compared with HL. The partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) was higher in ISO compared with OX, and both were higher than when breathing RA. Despite a lack of species difference in pO2, PD had a more dramatic increase in pO2 in ISO compared with HL (significant species and inhalant interaction). PD had a significantly shorter induction time than HL, but recovery time (return of righting reflex) did not differ between species. Subjectively, HL exhibited rough inductions compared with PD, characterized by violent whole-body and tail movements. The unexpected increase in pO2 in ISO compared with OX, along with the species-specific differences and anesthetic effects, emphasizes the unique respiratory physiology of scorpions and demonstrates that further species-specific studies of anesthetics are warranted.

Diagnostic Performance of Clinicopathological Analytes in Otostrongylus circumlitis-Infected Rehabilitating Juvenile Northern Elephant Seals (Mirounga angustirostris).

The nematode lungworm, Otostrongylus circumlitis (OC), is a significant cause of northern elephant seal (NES; Mirounga angustirostris) mortality at The Marine Mammal Center (TMMC, Sausalito, CA). The current lack of specific antemortem diagnostic tests for pre-patent OC infection in NES makes diagnosis, proper treatment, and assessment of efficacy of medications challenging. Severe inflammation and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) develop rapidly and are difficult to treat once clinical signs develop. Certain blood inflammatory and hemostasis biomarkers for early diagnosis have recently been investigated. The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic performance of complete blood count, serum chemistry, acute phase proteins, protein electrophoresis, and coagulation parameters for diagnosis of OC clinical infection in NES. Samples from NES with OC infection confirmed by gross pathology with blood collected antemortem during clinical disease (n = 9) and NES initially admitted for malnutrition and sampled shortly before release after successful rehabilitation (n = 20) were included in the study. Using Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, the diagnostic performances (area under the curve [AUC]) of albumin (0.994), albumin:globulin ratio (0.983), serum amyloid A (0.972), activated partial thromboplastin time (0.936), total bilirubin (0.975), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (0.939) were high (AUC > 0.9). These results confirm systemic inflammation and DIC, and support previously reported clinical and gross pathological findings in NES infected with OC. In addition to AUC values, this study produced cut-off points, sensitivity, specificity, confidence intervals, and predictive values for analytes with high diagnostic performance. This data will be useful in the diagnosis and clinical management of OC-infected NES and will aid in assessment of treatment efficacy.

Measurement of Intraocular Pressure Using Rebound Tonometry in Anesthetized Free-ranging South American Sea Lions (Otaria byronia).

Intraocular pressures (IOPs) were measured using a rebound tonometer in 56 free-ranging adult South American sea lions (Otaria byronia) from Punta San Juan, Peru. All animals were anesthetized using medetomidine, midazolam, and butorphanol and determined to be in good health. No ocular abnormalities were observed affecting the cornea or ocular adnexa. Field conditions precluded evaluation of the lens and posterior segment of the eye. Mean (SD) IOP values for males (n=37) were 31±11 mmHg (right eye) and 31±9 mmHg (left eye). The same values for females (n=19) were 24±9 mmHg in the left eye and 27±10 mmHg in the right eye. These values are similar to those previously reported for pinnipeds under professional care and higher than those generally reported for terrestrial mammals.

Pharmacokinetics of orally administered tramadol in Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata domestica).

This study documents the pharmacokinetics of oral tramadol in Muscovy ducks. Six ducks received a single 30 mg/kg dose of tramadol, orally by stomach tube, with blood collection prior to and up to 24 hr after tramadol administration. Plasma tramadol, and metabolites O-desmethyltramadol (M1), and N,O-didesmethyltramadol (M5) concentrations were determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence (FL) detection. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using a one-compartment model with first-order input. No adverse effects were noted after oral administration. All ducks achieved plasma concentrations of tramadol above 0.10 µg/ml and maintained those concentrations for at least 12 hr. Elimination half-life was 3.95 hr for tramadol in ducks, which is similar to other avian species. All ducks in this study produced the M1 metabolite and maintained plasma concentrations above 0.1 µg/ml for at least 24 hr.

REPRODUCTIVE HORMONE PATTERNS IN MALE AND FEMALE COWNOSE RAYS ( RHINOPTERA BONASUS) IN AN AQUARIUM SETTING AND CORRELATION TO ULTRASONOGRAPHIC STAGING.

Reproductive management of cownose rays ( Rhinoptera bonasus) under professional care plays an important role in conservation of the species, but hormone and ultrasonographic analyses of their 12-mo reproductive cycle have not been documented previously. Plasma reproductive hormone concentrations (17B-estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and androstenedione) were measured monthly via radioimmunoassay for 1 yr in an aquarium-managed population of adult females ( n = 15) and males ( n = 5). Ultrasounds of the uterus were performed each month at the time of sample collection to identify gestation stage (0-5) based on a previously developed in-house staging system. Stages were correlated to hormone concentrations to track progression through pregnancy. Thirteen females were reproductively active, and each produced one pup in March-June, similar to timing for free-ranging populations. Female estradiol increased steadily throughout gestation from stages 0 to 5, while progesterone, testosterone, and androstenedione were increased only in early gestation (stages 1 and 2). Unlike month of year, gestation stage strongly predicted hormone concentration, but specific values to predict parturition date were not identified. Male testosterone and progesterone were higher in March-June (mating season) than July-January, while estradiol and androstenedione did not exhibit a seasonal pattern. Aquarium-managed cownose rays have similar reproductive patterns to what is reported in wild populations. Ultrasonographic monitoring with serial hormone analysis and accurate mating records will provide the most useful information for managing a reproductive population of cownose rays in an aquarium setting.

ACUTE-PHASE RESPONSES IN HEALTHY, MALNOURISHED, AND OTOSTRONGYLUS-INFECTED JUVENILE NORTHERN ELEPHANT SEALS (MIROUNGA ANGUSTIROSTRIS).

Acute-phase proteins (APPs) are utilized to detect early inflammation in many domestic and nondomestic species, but variability exists between species and inflammatory diseases as to which APPs are most useful. Stranded juvenile northern elephant seals (NESs; Mirounga angustirostris) undergoing rehabilitation at the Marine Mammal Center experience high mortality rates due to severe arteritis caused by the lungworm, Otostrongylus circumlitis (OC), and there are currently no effective antemortem diagnostic tools for this disease. To characterize patterns of the acute-phase response in the NES, two APPs-serum amyloid A (SAA) and C-reactive protein (CRP)-were measured, and serum protein electrophoresis was performed to measure albumin and globulin fractions in 81 serum samples from 58 NESs in four different health states: healthy, malnourished, preclinical for OC infection, or clinical for OC infection. Compared to healthy NESs (median, 11.2 mg/L), SAA concentrations were significantly increased in malnourished (33.9 mg/L), preclinical (247 mg/L), and clinical OC-infected NESs (328 mg/L) (P < 0.05). CRP concentrations were increased only in clinical OC-infected NESs (median, 53.9 mg/L) and were below detectable limits in the other three groups (<0.01 mg/L). These results show that SAA and CRP are positive APPs in NESs with OC infection, and that SAA may serve as the major APP for this species. Albumin : globulin ratios were significantly increased in malnourished NESs (median, 1.26) and decreased in clinical OC-infected NESs (0.53). As a result, albumin is a negative APP in the NES, similar to other mammalian species. APP monitoring can be helpful in detecting and monitoring inflammation in rehabilitating juvenile NESs.

Determination of Tear Production and Intraocular Pressure With Rebound Tonometry in Wild Humboldt Penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti ).

Tear production and intraocular pressures (IOPs) were determined in 38 and 102 wild Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), respectively, from the Punta San Juan Marine Protected Area in Ica, Peru. Tear production was measured by Schirmer tear test, and IOP was measured with a TonoVet rebound tonometer. Adult (n = 90) and chick (n = 12) penguins were sampled from 2 different beaches (north and south facing) during 2 sampling years (2010 and 2011). Results showed a mean ± SD (range) of 9 ± 4 (2-20) mm/min for tear production and 28 ± 9 (3-49) mm Hg for IOP. Tear production in penguins differed between beach and sex, whereas IOP differed between age, year, and beach. The IOPs were negatively correlated with packed cell volume. Tear production and IOP values had greater variation in this population than it has in other avian species. Previous investigations of IOP and tear production in Spheniscus species were conducted with birds housed under professional care in artificial marine and freshwater environments. This is the first study, to our knowledge, investigating tear production and IOP in wild penguins and establishes valuable reference intervals for this species.