Applications of sonochemistry in Russian food processing industry.

In food industry, conventional methodologies such as grinding, mixing, and heat treatment are used for food processing and preservation. These processes have been well studied for many centuries and used in the conversion of raw food materials to consumable food products. This report is dedicated to the application of a cost-efficient method of energy transfer caused by acoustic cavitation effects in food processing, overall, having significant impacts on the development of relatively new area of food processing such as food sonochemistry.

Protein L5 is crucial for in vivo assembly of the bacterial 50S ribosomal subunit central protuberance.

In the present work, ribosomes assembled in bacterial cells in the absence of essential ribosomal protein L5 were obtained. After arresting L5 synthesis, Escherichia coli cells divide a limited number of times. During this time, accumulation of defective large ribosomal subunits occurs. These 45S particles lack most of the central protuberance (CP) components (5S rRNA and proteins L5, L16, L18, L25, L27, L31, L33 and L35) and are not able to associate with the small ribosomal subunit. At the same time, 5S rRNA is found in the cytoplasm in complex with ribosomal proteins L18 and L25 at quantities equal to the amount of ribosomes. Thus, it is the first demonstration that protein L5 plays a key role in formation of the CP during assembly of the large ribosomal subunit in the bacterial cell. A possible model for the CP assembly in vivo is discussed in view of the data obtained.

Eukaryotic-like Ser/Thr protein kinases SpkC/F/K are involved in phosphorylation of GroES in the Cyanobacterium synechocystis.

Serine/threonine protein kinases (STPKs) are the major participants in intracellular signal transduction in eukaryotes, such as yeasts, fungi, plants, and animals. Genome sequences indicate that these kinases are also present in prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria. However, their roles in signal transduction in prokaryotes remain poorly understood. We have attempted to identify the roles of STPKs in response to heat stress in the prokaryotic cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, which has 12 genes for STPKs. Each gene was individually inactivated to generate a gene-knockout library of STPKs. We applied in vitro Ser/Thr protein phosphorylation and phosphoproteomics and identified the methionyl-tRNA synthetase, large subunit of RuBisCO, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, translation elongation factor Tu, heat-shock protein GrpE, and small chaperonin GroES as the putative targets for Ser/Thr phosphorylation. The expressed and purified GroES was used as an external substrate to screen the protein extracts of the individual mutants for their Ser/Thr kinase activities. The mutants that lack one of the three protein kinases, SpkC, SpkF, and SpkK, were unable to phosphorylate GroES in vitro, suggesting possible interactions between them towards their substrate. Complementation of the mutated SpkC, SpkF, and SpkK leads to the restoration of the ability of cells to phosphorylate the GroES. This suggests that these three STPKs are organized in a sequential order or a cascade and they work one after another to finally phosphorylate the GroES.

The analysis of the ChlI 1 and ChlI 2 genes using acifluorfen-resistant mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana.

One of the key regulatory enzymes of the chlorophyll biosynthesis pathway is magnesium (Mg) chelatase, consisting of three different subunits CHLI, CHLD and CHLH. While CHLH and CHLD are encoded by a single gene each in Arabidopsis, CHLI is encoded by two homologous genes, ChlI 1 and ChlI 2. Analysis of the acifluorfen herbicide resistant mutant aci5 revealed an alteration of the ChlI 1 gene. This mutant as well as wild type plants contained similar transcript levels of the ChlI 1 and ChlI 2 genes. Moreover, the transcripts of both alleles of the ChlI 1 gene were present in the cs (ch42-2)/aci5 hybrid which showed an albina phenotype. Comparison of the amino acid sequence of CHLI 1 and CHLI 2 encoded in the genome of aci5 and wild type revealed in particular alterations of the C-terminal end which are suggested to be responsible for the decreased ability of CHLI 2 to participate in the formation of the CHLI ring-like structure of the Mg chelatase complex.

Serine/threonine protein kinase SpkA in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 is a regulator of expression of three putative pilA operons, formation of thick pili, and cell motility.

Previous studies showed that a Ser/Thr protein kinase, SpkA, in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 is involved in cell motility. The present study, in which DNA microarray analysis and electron microscopy were used, demonstrated that SpkA regulates the expression of putative pilA9-pilA10-pilA11-slr2018, pilA5-pilA6, and pilA1-pilA2 operons and is essential for the formation of thick pili.

An Arabidopsis mutant that is resistant to the protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitor acifluorfen shows regulatory changes in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis.

Several Arabidopsis mutants of the ecotype Dijon were isolated that show resistance to the herbicide acifluorfen, which inactivates protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPOX), an enzyme of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis. This enzyme provides protoporphyrin for both Mg chelatase and ferrochelatase at the branchpoint, which leads to chlorophyll and heme, respectively. One of the mutations, aci5-3, displays semidominant inheritance. Heterozygous progeny showed yellow-green leaves, while the homozygous seedlings were white and inviable, but could be rescued by supplementing the medium with sugar. Interestingly, the expression of neither of the two forms of PPOX was altered in the mutant, but the rate of synthesis of 5-aminolevulinate, the precursor of all tetrapyrroles, was drastically reduced. Genetic mapping revealed the mutant locus is closely linked to the ch42 marker, which is itself located in the CHLI-1 gene which codes for one of the three subunits of Mg chelatase. The cs mutant also shows a defect in this gene, and test for allelism with aci5-3 confirmed that the two mutations are allelic. Sequencing of the wild type and aci5-3 alleles of CHLI-1 revealed a single base change (G718A), which results in a D240N substitution in the CHLI-1 protein. In the homozygous aci5-3 mutant no CHLI-1 RNA or protein could be detected. Strikingly, CHLH and CHLI-2 transcripts were also absent. This indicates the existence of a feedback-regulatory mechanism that inactivates the genes encoding certain Mg chelatase subunits. The basis for the semidominant inheritance pattern and the relationship between herbicide resistance and modified gene expression is discussed.

Inactivation of the geranylgeranyl reductase (ChlP) gene in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803.

Geranylgeranyl reductase catalyses the reduction of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate to phytyl pyrophosphate required for synthesis of chlorophylls, phylloquinone and tocopherols. The gene chlP (ORF sll1091) encoding the enzyme has been inactivated in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. The resulting DeltachlP mutant accumulates exclusively geranylgeranylated chlorophyll a instead of its phytylated analogue as well as low amounts of alpha-tocotrienol instead of alpha-tocopherol. Whereas the contents of chlorophyll and total carotenoids are decreased, abundance of phycobilisomes is increased in DeltachlP cells. The mutant assembles functional photosystems I and II as judged from 77 K fluorescence and electron transport measurements. However, the mutant is unable to grow photoautotrophically due to instability and rapid degradation of the photosystems in the absence of added glucose. We suggest that instability of the photosystems in DeltachlP is directly related to accumulation of geranylgeranylated chlorophyll a. Increased rigidity of the chlorophyll isoprenoid tail moiety due to three additional CC bonds is the likely cause of photooxidative stress and reduced stability of photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes assembled with geranylgeranylated chlorophyll a in the DeltachlP mutant.

The gene complement for proteolysis in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplasts.

A set of 62 genes that encode the entire peptidase complement of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 has been identified in the genome database of that cyanobacterium. Sequence comparisons with the Arabidopsis genome uncovered the presumably homologous chloroplast components inherited from their cyanobacterial ancestor. A systematic gene disruption approach was chosen to individually inactivate, by customary transformation strategies, the majority of the cyanobacterial genes encoding peptidase subunits that are related to chloroplast enzymes. This allowed classification of the peptidases that are required for cell viability or are involved in specific stress responses. The comparative analysis between Synechocystis and Arabidopsis chloroplast peptidases showed that: (1) homologous enzymes that arose by gene duplications in cyanobacteria are functionally diverse and frequently do not complement each other, (2) the chloroplast appears to house a number of distinct peptidase polypeptide chains of cyanobacterial origin (49) which is comparable with a cyanobacterial cell (62) and (3) the peptidase complement in plastids results from a combination of the loss of some cyanobacterial peptidases and the gain or diversification of subclasses of peptidases. This reorganization in the pattern of proteolytic enzymes may reflect distinct environmental and physiological changes between prokaryotic and organellar systems.

Gene-targeted and site-directed mutagenesis of photosynthesis genes in cyanobacteria.

This historical minireview traces the development and application of methods for gene-targeted and site-directed mutagenesis of photosynthesis genes in cyanobacteria (mainly Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803). This approach allowed important data to be obtained on the structure and function of Photosystem I and Photosystem II complexes. I describe some of the major contributions of molecular genetics and subsequent mutant analysis in the 1980s and early 1990s that led to substantial advances in our knowledge of basic principles regarding the organization of the photosynthetic apparatus. This molecular-genetic research on cyanobacteria has initiated a fresh wave of photosynthesis research and created a solid foundation for rapid progress at the threshold of the twenty-first century.