How can we realise the full potential of animal health systems for delivering development and health outcomes?

Animal health services play an essential role in supporting livestock production, with the potential to address the challenges of hunger, poverty, health, social justice and environmental health as part of the path towards the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) defined in the United Nations, 2030 Agenda. However, the provision of animal health services remains chronically underfunded. Although the aspiration that â€Ëœno one will be left behind' is core to the SDG agenda, animal health service provision still fails to meet the basic needs of many of the poorest livestock owners. This review draws largely on experience from Tanzania and highlights the obstacles to equitable provision of animal health services, as well as identifying opportunities for improvement. Delivery models that rely on owners paying for services, whether through the private sector or public?private partnerships, can be effective for diseases that are of clear economic importance to animal keepers, particularly in more market-orientated production systems, but are currently constrained by issues of access, affordability, availability and quality. Substantial challenges remain when attempting to control diseases that exert a major burden on animal or human health but are less well recognised, as well as in the delivery of veterinary public health or other public good interventions. Here, the authors propose solutions that focus on: improving awareness of the potential for animal health services to address the SDGs, particularly those concerning public and environmental health; linking this more explicitly with advocacy for increased investment; ensuring that the voices of stakeholders are heard, particularly those of the rural poor; and embracing a cross-cutting and expanded vision for animal health services to support more adaptive development of livestock systems.

Les services de santé animale accomplissent une fonction essentielle en faveur de la production animale tout en ayant un potentiel d'action pour relever les défis de la faim, de la pauvreté, de la santé, de la justice sociale et de la santé dans la perspective des objectifs de développement durable (ODD) définis dans l'Agenda 2030 des Nations Unies. Toutefois, la prestation de services de santé animale souffre d'un sous-financement chronique. Bien que l'aspiration de « ne laisser personne pour compte ¼ soit au coeur du programme des ODD, à ce jour la prestation de services de santé animale ne parvient pas encore à répondre aux besoins fondamentaux de nombreux propriétaires de bétail parmi les plus pauvres. Les auteurs s'appuient largement sur l'expérience de la Tanzanie pour mettre en évidence les obstacles à une prestation équitable de services de santé animale, et relever des perspectives d'amélioration. Les modèles de prestation assurés dans le cadre du secteur privé ou de partenariats public-privé et reposant sur le paiement des services par les propriétaires se révèlent efficaces lorsqu'il s'agit de maladies qui ont une importance économique évidente pour les détenteurs d'animaux, en particulier dans les systèmes de production orientés vers le marché, mais ils sont actuellement limités par des problèmes d'accès, de coût, de disponibilité de l'offre et de qualité. Des difficultés encore plus grandes subsistent lorsqu'il s'agit de lutter contre des maladies moins connues bien qu'ayant un impact important sur la santé animale ou humaine, ou d'assurer des services de santé publique vétérinaire ou d'autres interventions relevant du bien public. Les auteurs proposent des solutions centrées sur : une meilleure sensibilisation concernant le potentiel des services de santé animale à réaliser les ODD, en particulier ceux qui portent sur la santé publique et la santé environnementale ; la mise en place de liens plus explicites avec les plaidoyers en faveur d'investissements accrus ; des mesures garantissant que les voix de toutes les parties prenantes soient entendues, en particulier celles des pauvres du monde rural ; l'adoption d'une stratégie transversale et de grande ampleur pour les services de santé animale en faveur d'un développement plus adaptatif des systèmes d'élevage.

Los servicios de sanidad animal cumplen una esencial función de apoyo a la producción ganadera, potencialmente útil para abordar problemas relacionados con el hambre, la pobreza, la salud, la justicia social y la salud ambiental como parte del camino hacia los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) marcados en la Agenda 2030 de las Naciones Unidas. Sin embargo, la prestación de servicios zoosanitarios está lastrada por un déficit crónico de financiación. Aunque en la base misma de los ODS late la aspiración de «no dejar a nadie atrás¼, la prestación estos servicios aún no alcanza para responder a las necesidades básicas de muchos de los propietarios de ganado más pobres. Los autores, basándose principalmente en la experiencia de Tanzania, destacan los obstáculos que dificultan una prestación equitativa de servicios zoosanitarios y señalan las posibilidades existentes para progresar al respecto. Los modelos de prestación que requieren que el propietario pague por los servicios recibidos, ya sea del sector privado o de alianzas publicoprivadas, pueden resultar eficaces en el caso de enfermedades que revisten una clara importancia económica para los productores, especialmente en sistemas productivos con una marcada orientación comercial, aunque actualmente se ven lastrados por problemas de acceso, asequibilidad, disponibilidad y calidad. Por otro lado, subsisten dificultades de gran calado a la hora de combatir enfermedades menos reconocidas, aunque estas entrañen una pesada carga sanitaria o zoosanitaria, y también a la hora de implantar medidas de salud pública veterinaria u otras intervenciones de interés público. Los autores proponen soluciones centradas en: dar mejor a conocer el potencial que encierran los servicios de sanidad animal para perseguir los ODS, sobre todo los relacionados con la salud pública y ambiental; vincular más explícitamente esto último a la labor de sensibilización para lograr inversiones más cuantiosas; hacer oír la voz de todos los interesados, en especial la de los pobres de zonas rurales; y adoptar una visión más amplia y transversal de los servicios zoosanitarios para favorecer un desarrollo más flexible de los sistemas ganaderos.

Tuberculosis in Tanzanian wildlife.

Bovine tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, is a pathogen of growing concern in free-ranging wildlife in Africa, but little is known about the disease in Tanzanian wildlife. Here, we report the infection status of Mycobacterium bovis in a range of wildlife species sampled from protected areas in northern Tanzania. M. bovis was isolated from 11.1% (2/18) migratory wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and 11.1% (1/9) topi (Damaliscus lunatus) sampled systematically in 2000 during a meat cropping program in the Serengeti ecosystem, and from one wildebeest and one lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) killed by sport hunters adjacent to Tarangire National Park. A tuberculosis antibody enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was used to screen serum samples collected from 184 Serengeti lions (Panthera leo) and 19 lions from Ngorongoro Crater sampled between 1985 and 2000. Samples from 212 ungulates collected throughout the protected area network between 1998 and 2001 also were tested by EIA. Serological assays detected antibodies to M. bovis in 4% of Serengeti lions; one positive lion was sampled in 1984. Antibodies were detected in one of 17 (6%) buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in Tarangire and one of 41 (2%) wildebeest in the Serengeti. This study confirms for the first time the presence of bovine tuberculosis in wildlife of northern Tanzania, but further investigation is required to assess the impact on wildlife populations and the role of different wildlife species in maintenance and transmission.

Brucellosis in Arusha and Manyara Regions; Tanzania: A Challenge to Public Health

Setting: Karatu; Ngorongoro; Babati; Mbulu and Hanang districts in Arusha and Manyara regions; Tanzania. Methodology: A retrospective study was conducted in Karatu; Ngorongoro; Babati; Hanang and Mbulu districts in Arusha and Manyara regions between July and September 2002. Review of Hospital records and interview with district medical officers; hospital Incharge and clinicians were conducted.Results: Out 170;345 patients who attended hospitals in Babati; Dareda; Karatu; Hydom; Katesh; Wasso; Endulen and Mbulu hospitals in the year 2001; 619(0.36) were diagnosed as having brucellosis. It was found out that women suffer from brucellosis more than males. Out of 619 cases of brucellosis reported in the year 2001; 432 (69.8) were females and 187(30.2) were males. Most of the patients were of the age between 16-35 (46.3) i.e. after school age compared to the middle aged 36-50 (30.4). Few cases were found in the pre school age (7 years); school age (7-15) and old age (50 years) Conclusion There is a need to carry out a study that will establish the burden caused by brucellosis in the area. This should also include investigating the relationship between infection in animals and that in humans. There is also a need to investigate the burden of the disease to the community as well and not only to those who attend hospitals. Factors that favor acquisition of brucellosis to animals and subsequent transmission to humans must be explored and pointed out clearly so that the communities can be made aware of and hence minimize the chances for transmission of brucellosis

Tribal differences in perception of tuberculosis: a possible role in tuberculosis control in Arusha, Tanzania.

SETTING: Arusha, Tanzania. OBJECTIVE: To determine tribal differences in knowledge and practices that might influence tuberculosis control. METHOD: Twenty-seven villages were selected randomly out of 242 villages in four districts. In each village, a general and a livestock keeping group were selected at random. The households were home-visited and 426 family members were interviewed. RESULTS: On average, 40% of respondents practised habits that might expose them to both bovine and human tuberculosis. The Barabaig tribe had a significantly higher number of respondents (50%, chi2(2) = 5.1, P = 0.024) who did not boil milk. Eating uncooked meat or meat products was practised by 17.9% of all respondents. The habit was practised more by Iraqw (21.1%, chi2(2) = 6.9, P = 0.008) and Barabaig (31.6%, chi2(2) = 5.6, P = 0.016) than other tribes. About 75% of the respondents had a poor knowledge of tuberculosis. CONCLUSION: All tribes had habits and beliefs that might expose them to both bovine and human tuberculosis. The Iraqw and Barabaig tribes practised such habits more than other tribes. Knowledge of tuberculosis was limited in all tribes.

The role of livestock keeping in tuberculosis trends in Arusha, Tanzania.

SETTING: Arusha, Tanzania. OBJECTIVE: To assess risk factors that might influence TB control in the general population and in livestock-keepers. METHODS: Of 242 villages in four districts, 27 were selected randomly. In each village, a general and a livestock-keeping group were selected at random. The households were home-visited and 426 family members were interviewed. RESULTS: On average, three-quarters of households practised at least one risk activity for transmission of zoonotic tuberculosis, and respondents had poor knowledge about tuberculosis. In the livestock-keeping group, the risks of having a tuberculosis patient in the family were determined by poor ventilation (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.1-6.5), confining livestock indoors with people (OR 2.3, 95%CI 1.1-5.0) and multiple determinants including poor ventilation (OR 13.5, 95% CI 2.5-71.7). Risk activities and the risks of having a tuberculosis patient in a family were significantly higher in the livestock-keeping group. CONCLUSIONS: The respondents had limited knowledge about tuberculosis, and the households had practices that posed potential risks for both human and bovine tuberculosis infection. Poor ventilation and confining livestock indoors were associated with tuberculosis spread in the households. These risks were observed more in the livestock-keeping group than in the general population group.

Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle in different farming systems in the eastern zone of Tanzania.

The prevalence of bovine tuberculosis (BTB) infection in cattle was investigated in pastoral and intensive production systems in the eastern zone of Tanzania. The prevalence of BTB infection as determined by single comparative intradermal tuberculin test (SCITT) was 1.3%, whereas the non-specific infection prevalence was 6%. In the pastoral sector, the prevalences were 1 and 7%; under intensive systems, they were 2 and 6% for BTB and non-specific infections, respectively. The prevalences were significantly higher in the intensive than pastoral production systems. However, the prevalence of BTB infection was higher in the small-scale (3%) than in other production systems (0.6-1.1%). Non-specific infections were lowest in the small-scale dairy sector (4%) than in other dairy-production systems (6-11%). Out of 143 herds tested, 10 and 28% of herds in the intensive systems (small, medium and large farms) and 17 and 88% of the herds in the extensive system (pastoral farms) had both BTB and non-specific infections, respectively.