Quantification of plant surface metabolites by matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization mass spectrometry imaging: glucosinolates on Arabidopsis thaliana leaves.

The localization of metabolites on plant surfaces has been problematic because of the limitations of current methodologies. Attempts to localize glucosinolates, the sulfur-rich defense compounds of the order Brassicales, on leaf surfaces have given many contradictory results depending on the method employed. Here we developed a matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry protocol to detect surface glucosinolates on Arabidopsis thaliana leaves by applying the MALDI matrix through sublimation. Quantification was accomplished by spotting glucosinolate standards directly on the leaf surface. The A. thaliana leaf surface was found to contain approximately 15 nmol of total glucosinolate per leaf with about 50 pmol mm(-2) on abaxial (bottom) surfaces and 15-30 times less on adaxial (top) surfaces. Of the major compounds detected, 4-methylsulfinylbutylglucosinolate, indol-3-ylmethylglucosinolate, and 8-methylsulfinyloctylglucosinolate were also major components of the leaf interior, but the second most abundant glucosinolate on the surface, 4-methylthiobutylglucosinolate, was only a trace component of the interior. Distribution on the surface was relatively uniform in contrast to the interior, where glucosinolates were distributed more abundantly in the midrib and periphery than the rest of the leaf. These results were confirmed by two other mass spectrometry-based techniques, laser ablation electrospray ionization and liquid extraction surface analysis. The concentrations of glucosinolates on A. thaliana leaf surfaces were found to be sufficient to attract the specialist feeding lepidopterans Plutella xylostella and Pieris rapae for oviposition. The methods employed here should be easily applied to other plant species and metabolites.

Matrix-free UV-laser desorption/ionization (LDI) mass spectrometric imaging at the single-cell level: distribution of secondary metabolites of Arabidopsis thaliana and Hypericum species.

The present paper describes matrix-free laser desorption/ionisation mass spectrometric imaging (LDI-MSI) of highly localized UV-absorbing secondary metabolites in plant tissues at single-cell resolution. The scope and limitations of the method are discussed with regard to plants of the genus Hypericum. Naphthodianthrones such as hypericin and pseudohypericin are traceable in dark glands on Hypericum leaves, placenta, stamens and styli; biflavonoids are also traceable in the pollen of this important phytomedical plant. The highest spatial resolution achieved, 10 microm, was much higher than that achieved by commonly used matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) imaging protocols. The data from imaging experiments were supported by independent LDI-TOF/MS analysis of cryo-sectioned, laser-microdissected and freshly cut plant material. The results confirmed the suitability of combining laser microdissection (LMD) and LDI-TOF/MS or LDI-MSI to analyse localized plant secondary metabolites. Furthermore, Arabidopsis thaliana was analysed to demonstrate the feasibility of LDI-MSI for other commonly occurring compounds such as flavonoids. The organ-specific distribution of kaempferol, quercetin and isorhamnetin, and their glycosides, was imaged at the cellular level.

Proton sponge: a novel and versatile MALDI matrix for the analysis of metabolites using mass spectrometry.

Here, we show the usefulness of a strong base, 1,8-bis(dimethyl-amino)naphthalene (DMAN; proton sponge), as a novel matrix for MALDI-TOF/MS analysis of anions. Several strong and weakly acidic low-molecular-weight analytes (fatty acids, amino acids, fatty acid-amino acid conjugates, plant and animal hormones, vitamins, and short peptides) were measured at physiologically relevant concentrations. Clear negative-mode MALDI-TOF/MS spectra of all analytes using DMAN as the matrix show only deprotonated analyte signals at a low picomole/femtomole limit-of-detection. Moreover, the spectra were totally devoid of any matrix-related signals. Standard calibration curves gave good linearity over the entire picomole range: over two concentration orders in most cases and over three orders for peptides. Using this method, the crude regurgitate of the tobacco hornworm caterpillars (Manduca sexta, Lepidoptera, Sphingidae) was analyzed. As many as 11 different components were identified from a single spot, including 16:0, 18:2, 18:3, and 21:0 free acids and 5:0-Glu, 6:0-Glu, 18:2-Glu, 18:3-Glu, 16:0-Glu, and 16:3-Glu fatty acid-amino acid conjugates (FACs) in complete qualitative agreement with previously reported anion exchange-HPLC analyses. The identity of these components was confirmed by negative ion collision-induced dissociation (CID) MS2 spectra.

Acid-base-driven matrix-assisted mass spectrometry for targeted metabolomics.

The ability to charge huge biomolecules without breaking them apart has made matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry an indispensable tool for biomolecular analysis. Conventional, empirically selected matrices produce abundant matrix ion clusters in the low-mass region (<500 Da), hampering the application of MALDI-MS to metabolomics. An ionization mode of MAILD, a rational protocol for matrix selection based on Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory and its application to metabolomics, biological screening/profiling/imaging, and clinical diagnostics is illustrated. Numerous metabolites, covering important metabolic pathways (Krebs' cycle, fatty acid and glucosinolate biosynthesis), were detected in extracts, biofluids, and/or in biological tissues (Arabidopsis thaliana, Drosophila melanogaster, Acyrthosiphon pisum, and human blood). This approach moves matrix selection from "black art" to rational design and sets a paradigm for small-molecule analysis via MALDI-MS.

Nonuniform distribution of glucosinolates in Arabidopsis thaliana leaves has important consequences for plant defense.

The spatial distribution of plant defenses within a leaf may be critical in explaining patterns of herbivory. The generalist lepidopteran larvae, Helicoverpa armigera (the cotton bollworm), avoided the midvein and periphery of Arabidopsis thaliana rosette leaves and fed almost exclusively on the inner lamina. This feeding pattern was attributed to glucosinolates because it was not evident in a myrosinase mutant that lacks the ability to activate glucosinolate defenses by hydrolysis. To measure the spatial distribution of glucosinolates in A. thaliana leaves at a fine scale, we constructed ion intensity maps from MALDI-TOF (matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight) mass spectra. The major glucosinolates were found to be more abundant in tissues of the midvein and the periphery of the leaf than the inner lamina, patterns that were validated by HPLC analyses of dissected leaves. In addition, there were differences in the proportions of the three major glucosinolates in different leaf regions. Hence, the distribution of glucosinolates within the leaf appears to control the feeding preference of H. armigera larvae. The preferential allocation of glucosinolates to the periphery may play a key role in the defense of leaves by creating a barrier to the feeding of chewing herbivores that frequently approach leaves from the edge.

Analysis of low molecular weight acids by negative mode matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

Free 9-aminoacridine base is demonstrated to be a suitable matrix for negative mode matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometric (MALDI-TOFMS) analysis of a wide range of low molecular weight organic acids including aliphatic (from acetic to palmitic acid), aromatic acids, phytohormones (e.g. jasmonic and salicylic acids), and amino acids. Low limits of quantitation in the femtomolar range (jasmonic - 250 fmol; caffeic - 160 fmol and salicylic - 12.5 fmol) and linear detector response over two concentration orders in the pico- and femtomolar range are extremely encouraging for the direct study of such acids in complex biological matrices.