Matching the puzzle piece to a new jigsaw: The effect of surrounding environments on plants and invertebrates in the translocated wet meadow.

Habitat translocation is a method of habitat salvation conducted in cases of its inevitable destruction during construction projects. To evaluate the large-scale turf translocation of wet meadows to derelict land, with consideration of the possible impact of the surrounding area on the translocated habitat, salvaged Molinion meadows were compared to reference meadows near the donor site and to varied plots in the receptor area. The study included the soil, vegetation and selected groups of invertebrates at different motility and food levels. Pollinators (wild bees, butterflies), grasshoppers, ants and soil mesofauna, with emphasis on springtails, were counted and identified to the species level. Lower numbers of springtails and higher numbers of grasshoppers were observed in the translocated plots than in the reference plots. For springtails, the decreased soil porosity was a clear disadvantage. Mobile animals with a high food specificity responded dynamically to the habitat translocation. The translocated plots maintained their biodiversity. However, an influx of cosmopolitan species was noticeable, especially for the plants and pollinators. A few vulnerable species declined in number. The habitat translocation to derelict land was associated with a deterioration of the ecological condition of the habitat; thus, natural habitats should be preserved where they are if possible. However, in the case of their inevitable destruction, translocation is better than nothing. Revitalised areas can be a valuable spot for local pollinators, as well as for other animals, as far as their biodiversity is maintained. Caring for pollinators, which are under threat on a global scale, should be a particular concern for the safety of crops and phytocoenoses.

Feeding habits and multifunctional classification of soil-associated consumers from protists to vertebrates.

Soil organisms drive major ecosystem functions by mineralising carbon and releasing nutrients during decomposition processes, which supports plant growth, aboveground biodiversity and, ultimately, human nutrition. Soil ecologists often operate with functional groups to infer the effects of individual taxa on ecosystem functions and services. Simultaneous assessment of the functional roles of multiple taxa is possible using food-web reconstructions, but our knowledge of the feeding habits of many taxa is insufficient and often based on limited evidence. Over the last two decades, molecular, biochemical and isotopic tools have improved our understanding of the feeding habits of various soil organisms, yet this knowledge is still to be synthesised into a common functional framework. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the feeding habits of consumers in soil, including protists, micro-, meso- and macrofauna (invertebrates), and soil-associated vertebrates. We have integrated existing functional group classifications with findings gained with novel methods and compiled an overarching classification across taxa focusing on key universal traits such as food resource preferences, body masses, microhabitat specialisation, protection and hunting mechanisms. Our summary highlights various strands of evidence that many functional groups commonly used in soil ecology and food-web models are feeding on multiple types of food resources. In many cases, omnivory is observed down to the species level of taxonomic resolution, challenging realism of traditional soil food-web models based on distinct resource-based energy channels. Novel methods, such as stable isotope, fatty acid and DNA gut content analyses, have revealed previously hidden facets of trophic relationships of soil consumers, such as food assimilation, multichannel feeding across trophic levels, hidden trophic niche differentiation and the importance of alternative food/prey, as well as energy transfers across ecosystem compartments. Wider adoption of such tools and the development of open interoperable platforms that assemble morphological, ecological and trophic data as traits of soil taxa will enable the refinement and expansion of the multifunctional classification of consumers in soil. The compiled multifunctional classification of soil-associated consumers will serve as a reference for ecologists working with biodiversity changes and biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relationships, making soil food-web research more accessible and reproducible.

Responses of soil microarthropod taxon (Hexapoda: Protura) to natural disturbances and management practices in forest-dominated subalpine lake catchment areas.

Disturbances are intrinsic drivers of structure and function in ecosystems, hence predicting their effects in forest ecosystems is essential for forest conservation and/or management practices. Yet, knowledge regarding belowground impacts of disturbance events still remains little understood and can greatly vary by taxonomic and functional identity, disturbance type and local environmental conditions. To address this gap in knowledge, we conducted a survey of soil-dwelling Protura, across forests subjected to different disturbance regimes (i.e. windstorms, insect pest outbreaks and clear-cut logging). We expected that the soil proturan assemblages would differ among disturbance regimes. We also hypothesized that these differences would be driven primarily by variation in soil physicochemical properties thus the impacts of forest disturbances would be indirect and related to changes in food resources. To verify that sampling included two geographically distant subalpine glacial lake catchments that differed in underlying geology, each having four different types of forest disturbance, i.e. control, bark beetle outbreak (BB), windthrow + BB (wind + BB) and clear-cut. As expected, forest disturbance had negative effects on proturan diversity and abundance, with multiple disturbances having the greatest impacts. However, differences in edaphic factors constituted a stronger driver of variability in distribution and abundance of proturans assemblages. These results imply that soil biogeochemistry and resource availability can have much stronger effects on proturan assemblages than forest disturbances.

Protura in Arctic Regions, with Description of Mastodonentomon n. gen. (Acerentomidae, Nipponentominae) and a Key to Known Arctic Taxa.

Protura are widespread, but their presence in the Arctic was first noted only ca. 70 years ago and is still little acknowledged. This work compiles taxonomic information on proturans in the Arctic regions and adds unpublished data from Northern Siberia. Currently, this fauna is represented by 23 species in two orders and 14 genera. The large cosmopolitan genus Eosentomon is represented by only four species, whereas Acerentomidae is much more diverse, with 19 species in 13 genera (eight Nipponentominae, five Acerentominae). Most of the Arctic species possess a larger number of setae than species living in temperate regions. Based on several unique characters, a new genus, Mastodonentomon, is erected for Nipponentomon macleani, and the species is re-described with the original description supplemented with new characters, including head chaetotaxy, seta length, and porotaxy. Proturan occurrence in the Arctic is limited to Beringia, but the majority of species have restricted distributions and none have been found in both the American Arctic and Siberia. This implies relict origins and high levels of proturan endemism in the Arctic. This emerging view on biogeographical history is, however, hampered by the limited extent of available data, which highlights the need for considerably greater survey efforts. A key to Arctic proturans is provided to facilitate further studies.

Nienna chukotka sp. nov. (Protura, Acerentomidae, Nipponentominae) from the Arctic region, with a key to species of the genus.

A new species of Nienna was collected in the most northern part of the Palearctic, inside the Arctic Circle. In possessing seta Pc on tergite VII and sternites VI-VII and a very long foretarsal sensillum a, Nienna chukotka sp. nov. is more similar to Alaskaentomon species than to the other Nienna species distributed in southern Siberia and northern China. The new species differs from nearly all other members of Nipponentominae in possessing five anterior setae on tergite VII and in the presence of posterolateral pores on tergite I, as in members of Hesperentomon (Hesperentomidae). An identification key to Nienna species is provided.

A new species of Acerentulus Berlese, 1908 (Protura, Acerentomata, Acerentomidae) from Bulgaria with a revised key to the confinis group.

A new species, Acerentulus bulgaricus sp. nov., belonging to the confinis group, is described from Bulgaria. This species is characterized by long foretarsal sensilla a and b, the posterior position of foretarsal seta δ4, the presence of seta P1a on abdominal tergites II-VII and seta P3a on abdominal tergite VII, possession of eight anterior setae on abdominal tergite VII and composed spsm pores on sternite VI. The new species differs from all members of the confinis group in possessing P1a setae on tergites II-VII. Otherwise it is similar in body chaetotaxy and porotaxy to three species of the cunhai group, A. proximus, A. correzeanus and A. tuxeni. The identification key to 22 Acerentulus species belonging to confinis group is revised.

Protura are unique: first evidence of specialized feeding on ectomycorrhizal fungi in soil invertebrates.

BACKGROUND: Ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM) play a central role in nutrient cycling in boreal and temperate forests, but their role in the soil food web remains little understood. One of the groups assumed to live as specialised mycorrhizal feeders are Protura, but experimental and field evidence is lacking. We used a combination of three methods to test if Protura are specialized mycorrhizal feeders and compared their trophic niche with other soil invertebrates. Using pulse labelling of young beech and ash seedlings we analysed the incorporation of 13C and 15N into Acerentomon gallicum. In addition, individuals of Protura from temperate forests were collected for the analysis of neutral lipid fatty acids and natural variations in stable isotope ratios. RESULTS: Pulse labelling showed rapid incorporation of root-derived 13C, but no incorporation of root-derived 15N into A. gallicum. The transfer of 13C from lateral roots to ectomycorrhizal root tips was high, while it was low for 15N. Neutral lipid fatty acid (NLFA) analysis showed high amounts of bacterial marker (16:1ω7) and plant marker (16:0 and 18:1ω9) fatty acids but not of the fungal membrane lipid 18:2ω6,9 in A. gallicum. Natural variations in stable isotope ratios in Protura from a number of temperate forests were distinct from those of the great majority of other soil invertebrates, but remarkably similar to those of sporocarps of ECM fungi. CONCLUSIONS: Using three in situ methods, stable isotope labelling, neutral lipid fatty acid analysis and natural variations of stable isotope ratios, we showed that Protura predominantly feed on mycorrhizal hyphae via sucking up hyphal cytoplasm. Predominant feeding on ectomycorrhizal mycelia by Protura is an exception; the limited consumption of ECM by other soil invertebrates may contribute to carbon sequestration in temperate and boreal forests.

Genera of the Protura of the World: diagnosis, distribution, and key.

Protura are known all over the world with more than 800 described species belonging to three different orders (Acerentomata, Sinentomata, and Eosentomata) and seven families (Hesperentomidae, Protentomidae, Acerentomidae, Fujientomidae, Sinentomidae, Eosentomidae, and Antelientomidae). At present 76 genera are known worldwide. In this paper a description of the diagnostic characters of these genera and an updated key for their identification are reported.

A key for the determination of European species of Eosentomon Berlese, 1909 (Protura, Eosentomata, Eosentomidae).

European species of Eosentomon are examined. A taxonomic key to identification of 61 Eosentomon species is provided based on body chaetotaxy, shape, and position of sensilla on the foretarsus and shape of sensilla on the maxillary palps. Biogeographically, 13 of the known European Eosentomon species are known only from their type localities.

Morphological and Genetic Analysis of the Acerentomon doderoi Group (Protura: Acerentomidae) with Description of A. christiani sp. nov.

Acerentomon christiani sp. nov. is described from Vienna, Austria. The new species is a member of the "doderoi" group, characterized by the presence of seta x on tergite VII. It is most similar to A. gallicum, A. brevisetosum and A. tenuisetosum, but differs from these species in the length of foretarsal sensillum c and certain other chaetotaxic measurements and indices. In addition to the morphological description, the DNA barcoding region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene (COI) and the 28S ribosomal RNA of the new species are provided. The morphological characters and the barcode of the new species are discussed in comparison to those of other Acerentomon species. An identification key to all known Acerentomon spp. of the "doderoi" group is given.

New records of Protura (Entognatha, Arthropoda) from Romania, with an identification key to the Romanian species.

The Romanian Protura were studied based on 175 specimens collected from Romania, along with bibliographic data. The main publication on the Romanian proturans was written by M.A. Ionescu (1951), who described 13 species mainly from soil and forest litter from 15 collecting points. The current paper represents the first study at a national level. Faunal data on Protura were obtained from 22 sites, mostly from forests of the Romanian Carpathians and also from a peri-urban area of Bucharest, which had not been studied before. As a result, the Romanian Protura fauna now consists of 27 known taxa in 6 genera and 4 families. Of the 27 taxa, 15 species are new records for Romanian fauna. An identification key to the Romanian Protura species is provided.

Identification and character analysis of the Acerentomidae (Protura) of the northeastern Palearctic (Protura: Acerentomidae).

This paper is a summary of proturan fauna from Siberia and the Russian Far East, collectively termed the northeastern Palearctic. Special attention is given to the analysis of Acerentomidae, which is extraordinarily diverse in these regions (31 species). A key to species and a brief exposition of distribution of each genus are provided. A redescription of Imadateiella sharovi is presented, additional morphological characters are added for Nipponentomon khabarovskense, N. bidentatum, Yamatentomon yamato and Callientomon chinensis, and additional collection data are given for Y. yamato, C. chinensis, Nipponentomon jaceki and N. nippon. A cladistic analysis is presented of hypothetical relationships among the discussed acerentomid taxa. A scheme for ventral porotaxy is proposed, and the taxonomic importance of porotaxic characters within Acerentomata is discussed. Some biogeographical and phylogenetic considerations are given.

Where taxonomy based on subtle morphological differences is perfectly mirrored by huge genetic distances: DNA barcoding in Protura (Hexapoda).

BACKGROUND: Protura is a group of tiny, primarily wingless hexapods living in soil habitats. Presently about 800 valid species are known. Diagnostic characters are very inconspicuous and difficult to recognize. Therefore taxonomic work constitutes an extraordinary challenge which requires special skills and experience. Aim of the present pilot project was to examine if DNA barcoding can be a useful additional approach for delimiting and determining proturan species. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The study was performed on 103 proturan specimens, collected primarily in Austria, with additional samples from China and Japan. The animals were examined with two markers, the DNA barcoding region of the mitochondrial COI gene and a fragment of the nuclear 28S rDNA (Divergent Domain 2 and 3). Due to the minuteness of Protura a modified non-destructive DNA-extraction method was used which enables subsequent species determination. Both markers separated the examined proturans into highly congruent well supported clusters. Species determination was performed without knowledge of the results of the molecular analyses. The investigated specimens comprise a total of 16 species belonging to 8 genera. Remarkably, morphological determination in all species exactly mirrors molecular clusters. The investigation revealed unusually huge genetic COI distances among the investigated proturans, both maximal intraspecific distances (0-21.3%), as well as maximal congeneric interspecifical distances (up to 44.7%). CONCLUSIONS: The study clearly demonstrates that the tricky morphological taxonomy in Protura has a solid biological background and that accurate species delimitation is possible using both markers, COI and 28S rDNA. The fact that both molecular and morphological analyses can be performed on the same individual will be of great importance for the description of new species and offers a valuable new tool for biological and ecological studies, in which proturans have generally remained undetermined at species level.

New Nipponentomon species from northern Asia (Protura: Acerentomata, Nipponentomidae).

Nipponentomnon imadatei sp. nov. from Northeast China and Nippon entomon taiga sp. nov. from Siberia, Russia are described. Nipponentornon heterothrixi Yin & Xie is redescribed based on type materials and lectotype and paralectotypes are designed for the species. Nipponentonon bidentatumn and N. nippon are reported for the first time from China. Nipponentornon imnadatei sp. nov. is characterized by a short labrum, absence of seta Pla on tergite VII and presence of three A-setae on sternites IV-VI. It is similar to N. jaceki from the Russian Far East, but differs in the shape of the comb, shape of setaß1 on the foretarsus, length of sensillum e on the foretarsus, and in chaetotaxy on tergite I and sternites IV-VI. Nipponentomnon taiga sp. nov. is characterized by a short labrum, presence of seta P2a' on nota, seta P0a on tergite I, seta Pla on tergites I-VII, and absence of seta P3a on tergites II-VII. It is similar to N. heterothrixi, but differs in absence of seta d6 on the head, shape of accessory setae on tergites VI and VII, long and setiform setaß1, and shorter sensilla c, e, g, a' and c' on the foretarsus than in sensilla in N. heterothrixi and in the porotaxy. A key for the world species of the genus is provided and the porotaxy of five species is reported in detail.