The lncRNA Malat1 inhibits miR-15/16 to enhance cytotoxic T cell activation and memory cell formation.

Proper activation of cytotoxic T cells via the T cell receptor and the costimulatory receptor CD28 is essential for adaptive immunity against viruses, intracellular bacteria, and cancers. Through biochemical analysis of RNA:protein interactions, we uncovered a non-coding RNA circuit regulating activation and differentiation of cytotoxic T cells composed of the long non-coding RNA Malat1 (Metastasis Associated Lung Adenocarcinoma Transcript 1) and the microRNA family miR-15/16. miR-15/16 is a widely and highly expressed tumor suppressor miRNA family important for cell proliferation and survival. miR-15/16 play important roles in T cell responses to viral infection, including the regulation of antigen-specific T cell expansion and memory. Comparative Argonaute-2 high-throughput sequencing of crosslinking immunoprecipitation (AHC) combined with gene expression profiling in normal and miR-15/16-deficient mouse T cells revealed a large network of hundreds of direct miR-15/16 target mRNAs, many with functional relevance for T cell activation, survival and memory formation. Among these targets, Malat1 contained the largest absolute magnitude miR-15/16-dependent AHC peak. This binding site was among the strongest lncRNA:miRNA interactions detected in the T cell transcriptome. We used CRISPR targeting with homology directed repair to generate mice with a 5-nucleotide mutation in the miR-15/16-binding site in Malat1. This mutation interrupted Malat1:miR-15/16 interaction, and enhanced the repression of other miR-15/16 target genes, including CD28. Interrupting Malat1 interaction with miR-15/16 decreased cytotoxic T cell activation, including the expression of interleukin 2 (IL-2) and a broader CD28-responsive gene program. Accordingly, Malat1 mutation diminished memory cell persistence in mice following LCMV Armstrong and Listeria monocytogenes infection. This study marks a significant advance in the study of long non-coding RNAs in the immune system by ascribing cell-intrinsic, sequence-specific in vivo function to Malat1. These findings have implications for T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases, antiviral and anti-tumor immunity, as well as lung adenocarcinoma and other malignancies where Malat1 is overexpressed.

The lncRNA Malat1 Inhibits miR-15/16 to Enhance Cytotoxic T Cell Activation and Memory Cell Formation.

Proper activation of cytotoxic T cells via the T cell receptor and the costimulatory receptor CD28 is essential for adaptive immunity against viruses, many intracellular bacteria and cancers. Through biochemical analysis of RNA:protein interactions, we uncovered a non-coding RNA circuit regulating activation and differentiation of cytotoxic T cells composed of the long non-coding RNA Malat1 (Metastasis Associated Lung Adenocarcinoma Transcript 1) and the microRNA family miR-15/16. miR-15/16 is a widely and highly expressed tumor suppressor miRNA family important for cell proliferation and survival. miR-15/16 also play important roles in T cell responses to viral infection, including the regulation of antigen-specific T cell expansion and T cell memory. Comparative Argonaute-2 high throughput sequencing of crosslinking immunoprecipitation (Ago2 HITS-CLIP, or AHC) combined with gene expression profiling in normal and miR-15/16-deficient T cells revealed a large network of several hundred direct miR-15/16 target mRNAs, many with functional relevance for T cell activation, survival and memory formation. Among these targets, the long non-coding RNA Malat1 contained the largest absolute magnitude miR-15/16-dependent AHC peak in T cells. This binding site was also among the strongest lncRNA:miRNA interactions detected in the T cell transcriptome. We used CRISPR targeting with homology directed repair to generate mice with a 5-nucleotide mutation in the miR-15/16 binding site in Malat1. This mutation interrupted Malat1:miR-15/16 interaction, and enhanced the repression of other miR-15/16 target genes, including CD28. Interrupting Malat1 interaction with miR-15/16 decreased cytotoxic T cell activation, including the expression of IL-2 and a broader CD28-responsive gene program. Accordingly, Malat1 mutation diminished memory cell persistence following LCMV Armstrong and Listeria monocytogenes infection. This study marks a significant advance in the study of long noncoding RNAs in the immune system by ascribing cell-intrinsic, sequence-specific in vivo function to Malat1. These findings have implications for T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases, antiviral and anti-tumor immunity, as well as lung adenocarcinoma and other malignancies where Malat1 is overexpressed.

Non-coding sequence variation reveals fragility within interleukin 2 feedback circuitry and shapes autoimmune disease risk.

Genetic variants associated with human autoimmune diseases commonly map to non-coding control regions, particularly enhancers that function selectively in immune cells and fine-tune gene expression within a relatively narrow range of values. How such modest, cell-type-selective changes can meaningfully shape organismal disease risk remains unclear. To explore this issue, we experimentally manipulated species-conserved enhancers within the disease-associated IL2RA locus and studied accompanying changes in the progression of autoimmunity. Perturbing distinct enhancers with restricted activity in conventional T cells (Tconvs) or regulatory T cells (Tregs)-two functionally antagonistic T cell subsets-caused only modest, cell-type-selective decreases in IL2ra expression parameters. However, these same perturbations had striking and opposing effects in vivo , completely preventing or severely accelerating disease in a murine model of type 1 diabetes. Quantitative tissue imaging and computational modelling revealed that each enhancer manipulation impinged on distinct IL-2-dependent feedback circuits. These imbalances altered the intracellular signaling and intercellular communication dynamics of activated Tregs and Tconvs, producing opposing spatial domains that amplified or constrained ongoing autoimmune responses. These findings demonstrate how subtle changes in gene regulation stemming from non-coding variation can propagate across biological scales due to non-linearities in intra- and intercellular feedback circuitry, dramatically shaping disease risk at the organismal level.

Dysregulated RASGRP1 expression through RUNX1 mediated transcription promotes autoimmunity.

RasGRP1 is a Ras guanine nucleotide exchange factor, and an essential regulator of lymphocyte receptor signaling. In mice, Rasgrp1 deletion results in defective T lymphocyte development. RASGRP1-deficient patients suffer from immune deficiency, and the RASGRP1 gene has been linked to autoimmunity. However, how RasGRP1 levels are regulated, and if RasGRP1 dosage alterations contribute to autoimmunity remains unknown. We demonstrate that diminished Rasgrp1 expression caused defective T lymphocyte selection in C57BL/6 mice, and that the severity of inflammatory disease inversely correlates with Rasgrp1 expression levels. In patients with autoimmunity, active inflammation correlated with decreased RASGRP1 levels in CD4+ T cells. By analyzing H3K27 acetylation profiles in human T cells, we identified a RASGRP1 enhancer that harbors autoimmunity-associated SNPs. CRISPR-Cas9 disruption of this enhancer caused lower RasGRP1 expression, and decreased binding of RUNX1 and CBFB transcription factors. Analyzing patients with autoimmunity, we detected reduced RUNX1 expression in CD4+ T cells. Lastly, we mechanistically link RUNX1 to transcriptional regulation of RASGRP1 to reveal a key circuit regulating RasGRP1 expression, which is vital to prevent inflammatory disease.

Functional CRISPR dissection of gene networks controlling human regulatory T cell identity.

Human regulatory T (Treg) cells are essential for immune homeostasis. The transcription factor FOXP3 maintains Treg cell identity, yet the complete set of key transcription factors that control Treg cell gene expression remains unknown. Here, we used pooled and arrayed Cas9 ribonucleoprotein screens to identify transcription factors that regulate critical proteins in primary human Treg cells under basal and proinflammatory conditions. We then generated 54,424 single-cell transcriptomes from Treg cells subjected to genetic perturbations and cytokine stimulation, which revealed distinct gene networks individually regulated by FOXP3 and PRDM1, in addition to a network coregulated by FOXO1 and IRF4. We also discovered that HIVEP2, to our knowledge not previously implicated in Treg cell function, coregulates another gene network with SATB1 and is important for Treg cell-mediated immunosuppression. By integrating CRISPR screens and single-cell RNA-sequencing profiling, we have uncovered transcriptional regulators and downstream gene networks in human Treg cells that could be targeted for immunotherapies.

CRISPR screen in regulatory T cells reveals modulators of Foxp3.

Regulatory T (Treg) cells are required to control immune responses and maintain homeostasis, but are a significant barrier to antitumour immunity1. Conversely, Treg instability, characterized by loss of the master transcription factor Foxp3 and acquisition of proinflammatory properties2, can promote autoimmunity and/or facilitate more effective tumour immunity3,4. A comprehensive understanding of the pathways that regulate Foxp3 could lead to more effective Treg therapies for autoimmune disease and cancer. The availability of new functional genetic tools has enabled the possibility of systematic dissection of the gene regulatory programs that modulate Foxp3 expression. Here we developed a CRISPR-based pooled screening platform for phenotypes in primary mouse Treg cells and applied this technology to perform a targeted loss-of-function screen of around 500 nuclear factors to identify gene regulatory programs that promote or disrupt Foxp3 expression. We identified several modulators of Foxp3 expression, including ubiquitin-specific peptidase 22 (Usp22) and ring finger protein 20 (Rnf20). Usp22, a member of the deubiquitination module of the SAGA chromatin-modifying complex, was revealed to be a positive regulator that stabilized Foxp3 expression; whereas the screen suggested that Rnf20, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, can serve as a negative regulator of Foxp3. Treg-specific ablation of Usp22 in mice reduced Foxp3 protein levels and caused defects in their suppressive function that led to spontaneous autoimmunity but protected against tumour growth in multiple cancer models. Foxp3 destabilization in Usp22-deficient Treg cells could be rescued by ablation of Rnf20, revealing a reciprocal ubiquitin switch in Treg cells. These results reveal previously unknown modulators of Foxp3 and demonstrate a screening method that can be broadly applied to discover new targets for Treg immunotherapies for cancer and autoimmune disease.

miR-15/16 Restrain Memory T Cell Differentiation, Cell Cycle, and Survival.

Coordinate control of T cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation are essential for host protection from pathogens and cancer. Long-lived memory cells, whose precursors are formed during the initial immunological insult, provide protection from future encounters, and their generation is the goal of many vaccination strategies. microRNAs (miRNAs) are key nodes in regulatory networks that shape effective T cell responses through the fine-tuning of thousands of genes. Here, using compound conditional mutant mice to eliminate miR-15/16 family miRNAs in T cells, we show that miR-15/16 restrict T cell cycle, survival, and memory T cell differentiation. High throughput sequencing of RNA isolated by cross-linking immunoprecipitation of AGO2 combined with gene expression analysis in miR-15/16-deficient T cells indicates that these effects are mediated through the direct inhibition of an extensive network of target genes within pathways critical to cell cycle, survival, and memory.

A large CRISPR-induced bystander mutation causes immune dysregulation.

A persistent concern with CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing has been the potential to generate mutations at off-target genomic sites. While CRISPR-engineering mice to delete a ~360 bp intronic enhancer, here we discovered a founder line that had marked immune dysregulation caused by a 24 kb tandem duplication of the sequence adjacent to the on-target deletion. Our results suggest unintended repair of on-target genomic cuts can cause pathogenic "bystander" mutations that escape detection by routine targeted genotyping assays.

CRISPR-Based Tools in Immunity.

CRISPR technology has opened a new era of genome interrogation and genome engineering. Discovered in bacteria, where it protects against bacteriophage by cleaving foreign nucleic acid sequences, the CRISPR system has been repurposed as an adaptable tool for genome editing and multiple other applications. CRISPR's ease of use, precision, and versatility have led to its widespread adoption, accelerating biomedical research and discovery in human cells and model organisms. Here we review CRISPR-based tools and discuss how they are being applied to decode the genetic circuits that control immune function in health and disease. Genetic variation in immune cells can affect autoimmune disease risk, infectious disease pathogenesis, and cancer immunotherapies. CRISPR provides unprecedented opportunities for functional mechanistic studies of coding and noncoding genome sequence function in immunity. Finally, we discuss the potential of CRISPR technology to engineer synthetic cellular immunotherapies for a wide range of human diseases.

Thymic regulatory T cells arise via two distinct developmental programs.

The developmental programs that generate a broad repertoire of regulatory T cells (Treg cells) able to respond to both self antigens and non-self antigens remain unclear. Here we found that mature Treg cells were generated through two distinct developmental programs involving CD25+ Treg cell progenitors (CD25+ TregP cells) and Foxp3lo Treg cell progenitors (Foxp3lo TregP cells). CD25+ TregP cells showed higher rates of apoptosis and interacted with thymic self antigens with higher affinity than did Foxp3lo TregP cells, and had a T cell antigen receptor repertoire and transcriptome distinct from that of Foxp3lo TregP cells. The development of both CD25+ TregP cells and Foxp3lo TregP cells was controlled by distinct signaling pathways and enhancers. Transcriptomics and histocytometric data suggested that CD25+ TregP cells and Foxp3lo TregP cells arose by coopting negative-selection programs and positive-selection programs, respectively. Treg cells derived from CD25+ TregP cells, but not those derived from Foxp3lo TregP cells, prevented experimental autoimmune encephalitis. Our findings indicate that Treg cells arise through two distinct developmental programs that are both required for a comprehensive Treg cell repertoire capable of establishing immunotolerance.

Revisiting IL-2: Biology and therapeutic prospects.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2), the first cytokine that was molecularly cloned, was shown to be a T cell growth factor essential for the proliferation of T cells and the generation of effector and memory cells. On the basis of this activity, the earliest therapeutic application of IL-2 was to boost immune responses in cancer patients. Therefore, it was a surprise that genetic deletion of the cytokine or its receptor led not only to the expected immune deficiency but also to systemic autoimmunity and lymphoproliferation. Subsequent studies established that IL-2 is essential for the maintenance of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg cells), and in its absence, there is a profound deficiency of Treg cells and resulting autoimmunity. We now know that IL-2 promotes the generation, survival, and functional activity of Treg cells and thus has dual and opposing functions: maintaining Treg cells to control immune responses and stimulating conventional T cells to promote immune responses. It is well documented that certain IL-2 conformations result in selective targeting of Treg cells by increasing reliance on CD25 binding while compromising CD122 binding. Recent therapeutic strategies have emerged to use IL-2, monoclonal antibodies to IL-2, or IL-2 variants to boost Treg cell numbers and function to treat autoimmune diseases while dealing with the continuing challenges to minimize the generation of effector and memory cells, natural killer cells, and other innate lymphoid populations.

Author Correction: Discovery of stimulation-responsive immune enhancers with CRISPR activation.

In this Letter, analysis of steady-state regulatory T (Treg) cell percentages from Il2ra enhancer deletion (EDEL) and wild-type (WT) mice revealed no differences between them (Extended Data Fig. 9d). This analysis included two mice whose genotypes were incorrectly assigned. Even after correction of the genotypes, no significant differences in Treg cell percentages were seen when data across experimental cohorts were averaged (as was done in Extended Data Fig. 9d). However, if we normalize the corrected data to account for variation among experimental cohorts, a subtle decrease in EDEL Treg cell percentages is revealed and, using the corrected and normalized data, we have redrawn Extended Data Fig. 9d in Supplementary Fig. 1. The Supplementary Information to this Amendment contains the corrected and reanalysed Extended Data Fig. 9d. The sentence "This enhancer deletion (EDEL) strain also had no obvious T cell phenotypes at steady state (Extended Data Fig. 9)." should read: "This enhancer deletion (EDEL) strain had a small decrease in the percentage of Treg cells (Extended Data Fig. 9).". This error does not affect any of the main figures in the Letter or the data from mice with the human autoimmune-associated single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) knocked in or with a 12-base-pair deletion at the site (12DEL). In addition, we stated in the Methods that we observed consistent immunophenotypes of EDEL mice across three founders, but in fact, we observed consistent phenotypes in mice from two founders. This does not change any of our conclusions and the original Letter has not been corrected.

A novel iris transillumination grading scale allowing flexible assessment with quantitative image analysis and visual matching.

PURPOSE: To develop a sensitive scale of iris transillumination suitable for clinical and research use, with the capability of either quantitative analysis or visual matching of images. METHODS: Iris transillumination photographic images were used from 70 study subjects with ocular or oculocutaneous albinism. Subjects represented a broad range of ocular pigmentation. A subset of images was subjected to image analysis and ranking by both expert and nonexpert reviewers. Quantitative ordering of images was compared with ordering by visual inspection. Images were binned to establish an 8-point scale. Ranking consistency was evaluated using the Kendall rank correlation coefficient (Kendall's tau). Visual ranking results were assessed using Kendall's coefficient of concordance (Kendall's W) analysis. RESULTS: There was a high degree of correlation among the image analysis, expert-based and non-expert-based image rankings. Pairwise comparisons of the quantitative ranking with each reviewer generated an average Kendall's tau of 0.83 ± 0.04 (SD). Inter-rater correlation was also high with Kendall's W of 0.96, 0.95, and 0.95 for nonexpert, expert, and all reviewers, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The current standard for assessing iris transillumination is expert assessment of clinical exam findings. We adapted an image-analysis technique to generate quantitative transillumination values. Quantitative ranking was shown to be highly similar to a ranking produced by both expert and nonexpert reviewers. This finding suggests that the image characteristics used to quantify iris transillumination do not require expert interpretation. Inter-rater rankings were also highly similar, suggesting that varied methods of transillumination ranking are robust in terms of producing reproducible results.

Enhancer connectome in primary human cells identifies target genes of disease-associated DNA elements.

The challenge of linking intergenic mutations to target genes has limited molecular understanding of human diseases. Here we show that H3K27ac HiChIP generates high-resolution contact maps of active enhancers and target genes in rare primary human T cell subtypes and coronary artery smooth muscle cells. Differentiation of naive T cells into T helper 17 cells or regulatory T cells creates subtype-specific enhancer-promoter interactions, specifically at regions of shared DNA accessibility. These data provide a principled means of assigning molecular functions to autoimmune and cardiovascular disease risk variants, linking hundreds of noncoding variants to putative gene targets. Target genes identified with HiChIP are further supported by CRISPR interference and activation at linked enhancers, by the presence of expression quantitative trait loci, and by allele-specific enhancer loops in patient-derived primary cells. The majority of disease-associated enhancers contact genes beyond the nearest gene in the linear genome, leading to a fourfold increase in the number of potential target genes for autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases.

Discovery of stimulation-responsive immune enhancers with CRISPR activation.

The majority of genetic variants associated with common human diseases map to enhancers, non-coding elements that shape cell-type-specific transcriptional programs and responses to extracellular cues. Systematic mapping of functional enhancers and their biological contexts is required to understand the mechanisms by which variation in non-coding genetic sequences contributes to disease. Functional enhancers can be mapped by genomic sequence disruption, but this approach is limited to the subset of enhancers that are necessary in the particular cellular context being studied. We hypothesized that recruitment of a strong transcriptional activator to an enhancer would be sufficient to drive target gene expression, even if that enhancer was not currently active in the assayed cells. Here we describe a discovery platform that can identify stimulus-responsive enhancers for a target gene independent of stimulus exposure. We used tiled CRISPR activation (CRISPRa) to synthetically recruit a transcriptional activator to sites across large genomic regions (more than 100 kilobases) surrounding two key autoimmunity risk loci, CD69 and IL2RA. We identified several CRISPRa-responsive elements with chromatin features of stimulus-responsive enhancers, including an IL2RA enhancer that harbours an autoimmunity risk variant. Using engineered mouse models, we found that sequence perturbation of the disease-associated Il2ra enhancer did not entirely block Il2ra expression, but rather delayed the timing of gene activation in response to specific extracellular signals. Enhancer deletion skewed polarization of naive T cells towards a pro-inflammatory T helper (TH17) cell state and away from a regulatory T cell state. This integrated approach identifies functional enhancers and reveals how non-coding variation associated with human immune dysfunction alters context-specific gene programs.

Defining Disease, Diagnosis, and Translational Medicine within a Homeostatic Perturbation Paradigm: The National Institutes of Health Undiagnosed Diseases Program Experience.

Traditionally, the use of genomic information for personalized medical decisions relies on prior discovery and validation of genotype-phenotype associations. This approach constrains care for patients presenting with undescribed problems. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Undiagnosed Diseases Program (UDP) hypothesized that defining disease as maladaptation to an ecological niche allows delineation of a logical framework to diagnose and evaluate such patients. Herein, we present the philosophical bases, methodologies, and processes implemented by the NIH UDP. The NIH UDP incorporated use of the Human Phenotype Ontology, developed a genomic alignment strategy cognizant of parental genotypes, pursued agnostic biochemical analyses, implemented functional validation, and established virtual villages of global experts. This systematic approach provided a foundation for the diagnostic or non-diagnostic answers provided to patients and serves as a paradigm for scalable translational research.

Generation of knock-in primary human T cells using Cas9 ribonucleoproteins.

T-cell genome engineering holds great promise for cell-based therapies for cancer, HIV, primary immune deficiencies, and autoimmune diseases, but genetic manipulation of human T cells has been challenging. Improved tools are needed to efficiently "knock out" genes and "knock in" targeted genome modifications to modulate T-cell function and correct disease-associated mutations. CRISPR/Cas9 technology is facilitating genome engineering in many cell types, but in human T cells its efficiency has been limited and it has not yet proven useful for targeted nucleotide replacements. Here we report efficient genome engineering in human CD4(+) T cells using Cas9:single-guide RNA ribonucleoproteins (Cas9 RNPs). Cas9 RNPs allowed ablation of CXCR4, a coreceptor for HIV entry. Cas9 RNP electroporation caused up to ∼40% of cells to lose high-level cell-surface expression of CXCR4, and edited cells could be enriched by sorting based on low CXCR4 expression. Importantly, Cas9 RNPs paired with homology-directed repair template oligonucleotides generated a high frequency of targeted genome modifications in primary T cells. Targeted nucleotide replacement was achieved in CXCR4 and PD-1 (PDCD1), a regulator of T-cell exhaustion that is a validated target for tumor immunotherapy. Deep sequencing of a target site confirmed that Cas9 RNPs generated knock-in genome modifications with up to ∼20% efficiency, which accounted for up to approximately one-third of total editing events. These results establish Cas9 RNP technology for diverse experimental and therapeutic genome engineering applications in primary human T cells.

ERCC6 dysfunction presenting as progressive neurological decline with brain hypomyelination.

Mutations in ERCC6 are associated with growth failure, intellectual disability, neurological dysfunction and deterioration, premature aging, and photosensitivity. We describe siblings with biallelic ERCC6 mutations (NM_000124.2:c. [543+4delA];[2008C>T]) and brain hypomyelination, microcephaly, cognitive decline, and skill regression but without photosensitivity or progeria. DNA repair assays on cultured skin fibroblasts confirmed a defect of transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair and increased ultraviolet light sensitivity. This report expands the disease spectrum associated with ERCC6 mutations.

GRIN2A mutation and early-onset epileptic encephalopathy: personalized therapy with memantine.

OBJECTIVE: Early-onset epileptic encephalopathies have been associated with de novo mutations of numerous ion channel genes. We employed techniques of modern translational medicine to identify a disease-causing mutation, analyze its altered behavior, and screen for therapeutic compounds to treat the proband. METHODS: Three modern translational medicine tools were utilized: 1) high-throughput sequencing technology to identify a novel de novo mutation; 2) in vitro expression and electrophysiology assays to confirm the variant protein's dysfunction; and 3) screening of existing drug libraries to identify potential therapeutic compounds. RESULTS: A de novo GRIN2A missense mutation (c.2434C>A; p.L812M) increased the charge transfer mediated by NMDA receptors containing the mutant GluN2A-L812M subunit. In vitro analysis with NMDA receptor blockers indicated that GLuN2A-L812M-containing NMDARs retained their sensitivity to the use-dependent channel blocker memantine; while screening of a previously reported GRIN2A mutation (N615K) with these compounds produced contrasting results. Consistent with these data, adjunct memantine therapy reduced our proband's seizure burden. INTERPRETATION: This case exemplifies the potential for personalized genomics and therapeutics to be utilized for the early diagnosis and treatment of infantile-onset neurological disease.