Reversal of Opioid-Induced Respiratory Depression in Healthy Volunteers: Comparison of Intranasal Nalmefene and Intranasal Naloxone.

An open-label, randomized, crossover study in healthy volunteers compared the reversal of remifentanil-induced respiratory depression by intranasal (IN) naloxone hydrochloride (4 mg) to IN nalmefene (2.7 mg) (NCT04828005). Subjects were administered a hypercapnic gas mixture which produces an elevation in minute ventilation (MV), a result of the ventilatory response to hypercapnia. Subjects breathed a hypercapnic gas mixture through a tight-fitting mask for an initial period of 46 min prior to a series of mask "holidays" introduced to reduce subject discomfort and encourage study completion. Ten minutes after initiating the hypercapnic gas mixture, a remifentanil bolus was administered, and an infusion continued for the study duration. Subjects were administered either naloxone or nalmefene 15 min after initiating the remifentanil infusion and MV monitored for 21 min followed by a mask holiday. Both nalmefene and naloxone produced a time-dependent reversal of remifentanil-induced reductions in MV measured 2.5-20 min post administration. At the primary endpoint (5 min post administration), nalmefene increases in MV (5.75 L/min) were nearly twice that produced by naloxone (3.01 L/min) (P < .0009); the point estimate favors nalmefene, demonstrating non-inferiority and superiority. In this model of opioid-induced respiratory depression, nalmefene has a more rapid onset of action than naloxone, which required 20 min to achieve a comparable reversal of respiratory depression. Both nalmefene and naloxone were well tolerated by healthy volunteers. This rapid onset of action may prove particularly valuable in an era when over 90% of fatalities are linked to synthetic opioid overdose.

Pharmacokinetic Properties of an FDA-approved Intranasal Nalmefene Formulation for the Treatment of Opioid Overdose.

Nalmefene is a high-affinity, long-duration opioid antagonist that was approved in 1995 as an injection for the treatment of opiate overdose, but subsequently withdrawn (2008) for reasons other than safety or effectiveness. The dramatic rise in opioid overdose deaths over the past 7-8 years catalyzed the development of an intranasal (IN) formulation of nalmefene for the emergency treatment of opioid overdose. The studies described here compare the pharmacokinetic properties and safety profiles of an IN formulation containing nalmefene (2.7 mg in 0.1 mL) to an approved 1 mg intramuscular (IM) dose. IN nalmefene produced maximum plasma concentrations that were significantly higher than observed following the IM dose (12.2 and 1.77 ng/mL, respectively). The time to reach maximum plasma concentrations was also faster following IN administration (0.25 and 0.33 hours, respectively) with significant differences in plasma concentrations manifested as early as 2.5 minutes after administration (NCT04759768). The plasma half-life of nalmefene was similar following IM and IN administration (10.6-11.4 hours). Furthermore, dose-normalized nalmefene exposure was similar for both 1 spray in each nostril and 2 sprays in the same nostril compared to a single spray in each nostril (NCT05219669). There were no sex differences in the pharmacokinetic properties of either IN or IM nalmefene. In an era when almost 90% of opioid overdose deaths have been linked to high-potency synthetic opioids, the ability to rapidly deliver high concentrations of nalmefene could represent an important tool for reducing both morbidity and mortality.

Treatment of overdose in the synthetic opioid era.

Overdose deaths are often viewed as the leading edge of the opioid epidemic which has gripped the United States over the past two decades (Skolnick, 2018a). This emphasis is perhaps unsurprising because opioid overdose is both the number-one cause of death for individuals between 25 and 64 years old (Dezfulian et al., 2021) and a significant contributor to the decline in average lifespan (Dowell et al., 2017). Exacerbated by the COVID 19 pandemic, it was estimated there were 93,400 drug overdose deaths in the United States during the 12 months ending December 2020, with more than 69,000 (that is, >74%) of these fatalities attributed to opioid overdose (Ahmad et al., 2021). However, the focus on mortality statistics (Ahmad et al., 2021; Shover et al., 2020) tends to obscure the broader medical impact of nonfatal opioid overdose. Analyses of multiple databases indicate that for each opioid-induced fatality, there are between 6.4 and 8.4 non-fatal overdoses, exacting a significant burden on both the individual and society. Over the past 7-8 years, there has been an alarming increase in the misuse of synthetic opioids ("synthetics"), primarily fentanyl and related piperidine-based analogs. Within the past 2-3 years, a structurally unrelated class of high potency synthetics, benzimidazoles exemplified by etonitazene and isotonitazene ("iso"), have also appeared in illicit drug markets (Thompson, 2020; Ujvary et al. 2021). In 2020, it was estimated that over 80% of fatal opioid overdoses in the United States now involve synthetics (Ahmad et al., 2021). The unique physicochemical and pharmacological properties of synthetics described in this review are responsible for both the morbidity and mortality associated with their misuse as well as their widespread availability. This dramatic increase in the misuse of synthetics is often referred to as the "3rd wave" (Pardo et al., 2019; Volkow and Blanco, 2020) of the opioid epidemic. Among the consequences resulting from misuse of these potent opioids is the need for higher doses of the competitive antagonist, naloxone, to reverse an overdose. The development of more effective reversal agents such as those described in this review is an essential component of a tripartite strategy (Volkow and Collins, 2017) to reduce the biopsychosocial impact of opioid misuse in the "synthetic era".

Countermeasures for Preventing and Treating Opioid Overdose.

The only medication available currently to prevent and treat opioid overdose (naloxone) was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) nearly 50 years ago. Because of its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, naloxone has limited utility under some conditions and would not be effective to counteract mass casualties involving large-scale deployment of weaponized synthetic opioids. To address shortcomings of current medical countermeasures for opioid toxicity, a trans-agency scientific meeting was convened by the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/National Institutes of Health (NIAID/NIH) on August 6 and 7, 2019, to explore emerging alternative approaches for treating opioid overdose in the event of weaponization of synthetic opioids. The meeting was initiated by the Chemical Countermeasures Research Program (CCRP), was organized by NIAID, and was a collaboration with the National Institute on Drug Abuse/NIH (NIDA/NIH), the FDA, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA), and the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA). This paper provides an overview of several presentations at that meeting that discussed emerging new approaches for treating opioid overdose, including the following: (1) intranasal nalmefene, a competitive, reversible opioid receptor antagonist with a longer duration of action than naloxone; (2) methocinnamox, a novel opioid receptor antagonist; (3) covalent naloxone nanoparticles; (4) serotonin (5-HT)1A receptor agonists; (5) fentanyl-binding cyclodextrin scaffolds; (6) detoxifying biomimetic "nanosponge" decoy receptors; and (7) antibody-based strategies. These approaches could also be applied to treat opioid use disorder.

Cannabinoid1 (CB-1) receptor antagonists: a molecular approach to treating acute cannabinoid overdose.

The legalization of cannabis for both recreational and medical use in the USA has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of emergency department visits and hospital admissions for acute cannabinoid overdose (also referred to as cannabis intoxication and cannabis poisoning). Both "edibles" (often sold as brownies, cookies, and candies) containing large amounts of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and synthetic cannabinoids (many possessing higher potencies and efficacies than Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol) are responsible for a disproportionate number of emergency department visits relative to smoked cannabis. Symptoms of acute cannabinoid overdose range from extreme lethargy, ataxia, and generalized psychomotor impairment to feelings of panic and anxiety, agitation, hallucinations, and psychosis. Treatment of acute cannabinoid overdose is currently supportive and symptom driven. Converging lines of evidence indicating many of the symptoms which can precipitate an emergency department visit are mediated through activation of cannabinoid1 receptors. Here, we review the evidence that cannabinoid1 receptor antagonists, originally developed for indications ranging from obesity to smoking cessation and schizophrenia, provide a molecular approach to treating acute cannabinoid overdose.

Be positive about negatives-recommendations for the publication of negative (or null) results.

Both positive and negative (null or neutral) results are essential for the progress of science and its self-correcting nature. However, there is general reluctance to publish negative results, and this may be due a range of factors (e.g., the widely held perception that negative results are more difficult to publish, the preference to publish positive findings that are more likely to generate citations and funding for additional research). It is particularly challenging to disclose negative results that are not consistent with previously published positive data, especially if the initial publication appeared in a high impact journal. Ideally, there should be both incentives and support to reduce the costs associated with investing efforts into preparing publications with negative results. We describe here a set of criteria that can help scientists, reviewers and editors to publish technically sound, scientifically high-impact negative (or null) results originating from rigorously designed and executed studies. Proposed criteria emphasize the importance of collaborative efforts and communication among scientists (also including the authors of original publications with positive results).

Fighting Fire with Fire: Development of Intranasal Nalmefene to Treat Synthetic Opioid Overdose.

The dramatic rise in overdose deaths linked to synthetic opioids (e.g., fentanyl, carfentanil) may require more potent, longer-duration opiate antagonists than naloxone. Both the high affinity of nalmefene at µ opiate receptors and its long half-life led us to examine the feasibility of developing an intranasal (IN) formulation as a rescue medication that could be especially useful in treating synthetic opioid overdose. In this study, the pharmacokinetic properties of IN nalmefene were compared with an intramuscular (i.m.) injection in a cohort of healthy volunteers. Nalmefene was absorbed slowly following IN administration, with a median time to reach Cmax (Tmax) of 2 hours. Addition of the absorption enhancer dodecyl maltoside (Intravail, Neurelis, Inc., Encinitas, CA) reduced Tmax to 0.25 hour and increased Cmax by ∼2.2-fold. The pharmacokinetic properties of IN nalmefene (3 mg) formulated with dodecyl maltoside has characteristics consistent with an effective rescue medication: its onset of action is comparable to an i.m. injection of nalmefene (1.5 mg) previously approved to treat opioid overdose. Furthermore, the Cmax following IN administration was ∼3-fold higher than following i.m. dosing, comparable to previously reported plasma concentrations of nalmefene observed 5 minutes following a 1-mg i.v. dose. The high affinity, very rapid onset, and long half-life (>7 hours) of IN nalmefene present distinct advantages as a rescue medication, particularly against longer-lived synthetic opioids.

Pharmacokinetic Interaction between Naloxone and Naltrexone Following Intranasal Administration to Healthy Subjects.

Naloxone (17-allyl-4,5α-epoxy-3,14-dihydroxymorphinan-6-one HCl), a µ-opioid receptor antagonist, is administered intranasally to reverse an opioid overdose but its short half-life may necessitate subsequent doses. The addition of naltrexone [17-(cyclopropylmethyl)-4,5α-epoxy-3,14-dihydroxymorphinan-6-one], another µ-receptor antagonist, which has a reported half-life of 3 1/2 hours, may extend the available time to receive medical treatment. In a phase 1 pharmacokinetic study, healthy adults were administered naloxone and naltrexone intranasally, separately and in combination. When administered with naloxone, the C max value of naltrexone decreased 62% and the area under the concentration-time curve from time zero to infinity (AUC0-inf) decreased 38% compared with when it was given separately; lower concentrations of naltrexone were observed as early as 5 minutes postdose. In contrast, the C max and AUC0-inf values of naloxone decreased only 18% and 16%, respectively, when given with naltrexone. This apparent interaction was investigated further to determine if naloxone and naltrexone shared a transporter. Neither compound was a substrate for organic cation transporter (OCT) 1, OCT2, OCT3, OCTN1, or OCTN2. There was no evidence of the involvement of a transmembrane transporter when they were tested separately or in combination at concentrations of 10 and 500 µM using Madin-Darby canine kidney II cell monolayers at pH 7.4. The efflux ratios of naloxone and naltrexone increased to six or greater when the apical solution was pH 5.5, the approximate pH of the nasal cavity; there was no apparent interaction when the two were coincubated. The importance of understanding how opioid antagonists are absorbed by the nasal epithelium is magnified by the rise in overdose deaths attributed to long-lived synthetic opioids and the realization that better strategies are needed to treat opioid overdoses.

Enhanced Intranasal Absorption of Naltrexone by Dodecyl Maltopyranoside: Implications for the Treatment of Opioid Overdose.

Based on its high affinity for µ opiate receptors and reported half-life after oral administration, the pharmacokinetic properties of intranasal naltrexone were examined to evaluate its potential to treat opioid overdose. This study was prompted by the marked rise in overdose deaths linked to synthetic opioids like fentanyl, which may require more potent, longer-lived opiate antagonists than naloxone. Both the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax ) and the time (Tmax ) to reach Cmax for intranasal naltrexone (4 mg) were comparable to values reported for a Food and Drug Administration-approved 4-mg dose of intranasal naloxone. The addition of the absorption enhancer dodecyl maltoside (Intravail) increased Cmax by ∼3-fold and reduced the Tmax from 0.5 to 0.17 hours. Despite these very rapid increases in plasma concentrations of naltrexone, its short half-life following intranasal administration (∼2.2 hours) could limit its usefulness as a rescue medication, particularly against longer-lived synthetic opioids. Nonetheless, the ability to rapidly attain high plasma concentrations of naltrexone may be useful in other indications, including an as-needed dosing strategy to treat alcohol use disorder.

On the front lines of the opioid epidemic: Rescue by naloxone.

Naloxone is a specific, high affinity opioid antagonist that has been used to treat suspected or confirmed overdose for more than 40 years. Naloxone use was initially confined to an emergency room setting, but the dramatic rise in opioid overdose events over the past two decades has, with increasing frequency, shifted naloxone use to first responders including police, emergency medical technicians, and the friends and family of overdose victims. The opioids responsible for overdose events have also evolved, from prescription opioids to heroin and most recently, very high potency synthetic opioids such as fentanyl. In 2016, synthetic opioids were linked to more overdose fatalities than either prescription opioids or heroin. In this review, I will discuss the evolution and use of naloxone products by first responders and the development of additional rescue medications in response to the unprecedented dangers posed by synthetic opioids.

A Survey of Payer Perspectives on Cannabis Use Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Cannabis use disorder (CUD) as described/defined in DSM 5, is characterized by impaired control of marijuana use and related personal, health, and legal consequences. CUD is a serious public health problem, affecting nearly 6 million individuals in the United States. There are no FDA approved medications to treat this disorder. The lack of available treatment options contributes to uncertainties by drug sponsors about formulary and reimbursement decision-making for CUD pharmacotherapies. OBJECTIVE: To addresses this gap by presenting the first findings on managed care payers' perceptions of CUD treatments and clinical trial end points. METHODS: An online survey was conducted with 50 payers from managed care organizations. The survey inquired about perceptions of unmet need in CUD treatment, relevant clinical trial end points, disease knowledge, and likelihood of review of new pharmacotherapies. RESULTS: The majority of payers (62%) reported that they were at least moderately familiar with CUD treatment end points. Most (80%) rated the unmet need for new pharmacotherapies for CUD as at least moderately important. Payers rated the most important end points for clinical trials as abstinence and decreased resource utilization. Most participants said an FDA approved CUD treatment would be formally reviewed by payers within 6 months (58%) or a year (36%). CONCLUSIONS: Based on these findings, payers see an unmet need for CUD treatment. Furthermore, FDA-approved pharmacotherapies for CUD will likely be reviewed quickly by payers, especially if data are provided on the likelihood of achieving abstinence and reduced resource utilization.

Medication development in opioid addiction: Meaningful clinical end points.

The FDA's "abstinence" outcome measure for approval of new medications to treat opioid-use disorders has been difficult to achieve; developing and validating alternative meaningful outcomes could facilitate drug development.

The Opioid Epidemic: Crisis and Solutions.

The widespread abuse of prescription opioids and a dramatic increase in the availability of illicit opioids have created what is commonly referred to as the opioid epidemic. The magnitude of this epidemic is startling: About 4% of the adult US population misuses prescription opioids, and in 2015, more than 33,000 deaths were attributable to overdose with licit and illicit opioids. Increasing the availability of medication-assisted treatments (such as buprenorphine and naltrexone), the use of abuse-deterrent formulations, and the adoption of US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention prescribing guidelines all constitute short-term approaches to quell this epidemic. However, with more than 125 million Americans suffering from either acute or chronic pain, the development of effective alternatives to opioids, enabled at least in part by a fuller understanding of the neurobiological bases of pain, offers the best long-term solution for controlling and ultimately eradicating this epidemic.

From bench to bedside: mGluR2 positive allosteric modulators as medications to treat substance use disorders.

OBJECTIVE: This paper provides an overview of the role of type 2 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR2) in addiction and behaviors reflecting addictive processes. RESULTS: AZD8529, an mGluR2 positive allosteric modulator (PAM), failed to separate from placebo in a phase II schizophrenia trial. The demonstration by Athina Markou's laboratory that AZD8529 attenuated both nicotine self-administration and cue-induced reinstatement was a key factor in the decision to move this compound into a smoking cessation study. CONCLUSION: Here, we highlight Markou laboratory's contribution to this project, as well as several innovative features of the phase II clinical trial that has already completed enrollment with top line results expected in early 2017.

Re-energizing the Development of Pain Therapeutics in Light of the Opioid Epidemic.

Limited options for treating moderate-severe pain led to an overreliance on opioids and the current opioid epidemic. Addressing the factors contributing to a dearth of effective alternatives and re-energizing the development of pain therapeutics is necessary to quell this epidemic.

Pharmacokinetic Properties and Human Use Characteristics of an FDA-Approved Intranasal Naloxone Product for the Treatment of Opioid Overdose.

Parenteral naloxone has been approved to treat opiate overdose for over 4 decades. Intranasal naloxone, administered "off label" using improvised devices, has been widely used by both first responders and the lay public to treat overdose. However, these improvised devices require training for effective use, and the recommended volumes (2 to 4 mL) exceed those considered optimum for intranasal administration. The present study compared the pharmacokinetic properties of intranasal naloxone (2 to 8 mg) delivered in low volumes (0.1 to 0.2 mL) using an Aptar Unit-Dose device to an approved (0.4 mg) intramuscular dose. A parallel study assessed the ease of use of this device in a simulated overdose situation. All doses of intranasal naloxone resulted in plasma concentrations and areas under the curve greater than those observed following the intramuscular dose; the time to reach maximum plasma concentrations was not different following intranasal and intramuscular administration. Plasma concentrations of naloxone were dose proportional between 2 and 8 mg and independent of whether drug was administered to 1 or both nostrils. In a study using individuals representative of the general population, >90% were able to perform both critical tasks (inserting nozzle into a nostril and pressing plunger) needed to deliver a simulated dose of naloxone without prior training. Based on both pharmacokinetic and human use studies, a 4-mg dose delivered in a single device (0.1 mL) was selected as the final product. This product can be used by first responders and the lay public, providing an important and potentially life-saving intervention for victims of an opioid overdose.

Mitigating the Effects of Nonadherence in Clinical Trials.

Accounting for subject nonadherence and eliminating inappropriate subjects in clinical trials are critical elements of a successful study. Nonadherence can increase variance, lower study power, and reduce the magnitude of treatment effects. Inappropriate subjects (including those who do not have the illness under study, fail to report exclusionary conditions, falsely report medication adherence, or participate in concurrent trials) confound safety and efficacy signals. This paper, a product of the International Society for CNS Clinical Trial Methodology (ISCTM) Working Group on Nonadherence in Clinical Trials, explores and models nonadherence in clinical trials and puts forth specific recommendations to identify and mitigate its negative effects. These include statistical analyses of nonadherence data, novel protocol design, and the use of biomarkers, subject registries, and/or medication adherence technologies.