Identification and dynamic regulation of tight junction protein expression in human neural stem cells.

Recent reports indicate that neural stem cells (NSCs) exist in a cluster-like formation in close proximity to cerebral microvessels. Similar appearing clusters can be seen ex vivo in NSC cultures termed neurospheres. It is known that this neurosphere configuration is important for preserving stemness and a proliferative state. How NSCs form neurospheres or neuroclusters remains largely undetermined. In this study, we show that primary human NSCs express the tight junction proteins (TJPs): zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), occludin, claudin-1, -3, -5, and -12. The relative mRNA expression was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and protein expression was confirmed by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy. Our results show that downregulation of TJPs occurs as neuronal differentiation is induced, suggesting that control of TJPs may be tied to the neuronal differentiation program. Importantly, upon specific knockdown of the accessory TJP, ZO-1, undifferentiated NSCs showed decreased levels of key stem cell markers. Taken together, our results indicate that TJPs possibly aid in maintaining the intercellular configuration of NSCs and that reduction in TJP expression consequently affects the stemness status.

Time-lapse in vivo imaging of dorsal root nerve regeneration in mice.

Primary sensory axon injury is common after spinal cord and root injuries and causes patients to suffer chronic pain and persistent loss of sensation and motor coordination. The devastating consequences of such injuries are due primarily to the failure of severed axons to regenerate within the damaged CNS. Our understanding of the molecular and cellular events that play key roles in preventing or promoting functional regeneration is far from complete, in part because complex and dynamic changes associated with nerve injury have had to be deduced from comparisons of static images obtained from multiple animals after their death. Revolutionary innovations in optics and mouse transgenics now permit real-time monitoring of regenerating dorsal root axons directly in living animals. Here, we describe detailed procedures for repetitive monitoring of identified axons in a lumbar dorsal root over hours to weeks using both widefield and two-photon microscopes. We also discuss the strengths and limitations of in vivo imaging and provide suggestions based on our own experience for troubleshooting issues associated with repeated anesthetization, an extensive laminectomy, and post-op care. These techniques provide the unprecedented opportunity to obtain novel insights into why sensory axons fail to reenter the spinal cord.

Sensory Axon Regeneration: A Review from an in vivo Imaging Perspective.

Injured primary sensory axons fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. Re-entry is prevented at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the CNS-PNS interface. Why axons stop or turn around at the DREZ has generally been attributed to growth-repellent molecules associated with astrocytes and oligodendrocytes/myelin. The available evidence challenges the contention that these inhibitory molecules are the critical determinant of regeneration failure. Recent imaging studies that directly monitored axons arriving at the DREZ in living animals raise the intriguing possibility that axons stop primarily because they are stabilized by forming presynaptic terminals on non-neuronal cells that are neither astrocytes nor oligodendrocytes. These observations revitalized the idea raised many years ago but virtually forgotten, that axons stop by forming synapses at the DREZ.

Activation of cannabinoid receptor 2 attenuates leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions and blood-brain barrier dysfunction under inflammatory conditions.

Previous studies have shown that modulation of the receptor-mediated cannabinoid system during neuroinflammation can produce potent neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. However, in this context, little is known about how selective activation of the cannabinoid type-2 receptor (CB2R) affects the activated state of the brain endothelium and blood-brain barrier (BBB) function. Using human brain tissues and primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMVECs), we demonstrate that the CB2R is highly upregulated during inflammatory insult. We then examined whether the CB2R agonists could attenuate inflammatory responses at the BBB using a mouse model of LPS-induced encephalitis and highly selective CB2R agonists. Visualization by intravital microscopy revealed that administration of JWH133 [(6aR,10aR)-3-(1,1-dimethylbutyl)-6a,7,10,10a-tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran] or a novel resorcinol-based compound, O-1966 (1-[4-(1,1-dimethyl-heptyl)-2,6-dimethoxy-phenyl]-3-methyl-cyclohexanol), greatly attenuated leukocyte adhesion in surface pial vessels and in deep ascending cortical postcapillary venules. BBB permeability assessments with small and large fluorescent tracers showed that CB2R agonists were effective at preventing barrier leakiness after LPS administration. To determine whether the effects by CB2R agonists on barrier protection are not only due to the CB2R modulation of immune cell function, we tested the agonists in vitro with barrier-forming primary BMVECs. Remarkably, the addition of CB2R agonist increased transendothelial electrical resistance and increased the amount of tight junction protein present in membrane fractions. Furthermore, CB2R agonists decreased the induction of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 surface expression in BMVECs exposed to various proinflammatory mediators. Together, these results suggest that pharmacological CB2R ligands offer a new strategy for BBB protection during neuroinflammation.

Live imaging of dorsal root axons after rhizotomy.

The primary sensory axons injured by spinal root injuries fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. Regeneration of dorsal root (DR) axons into spinal cord is prevented at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the interface between the CNS and PNS. Our understanding of the molecular and cellular events that prevent regeneration at DREZ is incomplete, in part because complex changes associated with nerve injury have been deduced from postmortem analyses. Dynamic cellular processes, such as axon regeneration, are best studied with techniques that capture real-time events with multiple observations of each living animal. Our ability to monitor neurons serially in vivo has increased dramatically owing to revolutionary innovations in optics and mouse transgenics. Several lines of thy1-GFP transgenic mice, in which subsets of neurons are genetically labeled in distinct fluorescent colors, permit individual neurons to be imaged in vivo(1). These mice have been used extensively for in vivo imaging of muscle(2-4) and brain(5-7), and have provided novel insights into physiological mechanisms that static analyses could not have resolved. Imaging studies of neurons in living spinal cord have only recently begun. Lichtman and his colleagues first demonstrated their feasibility by tracking injured dorsal column (DC) axons with wide-field microscopy(8,9). Multi-photon in vivo imaging of deeply positioned DC axons, microglia and blood vessels has also been accomplished(10). Over the last few years, we have pioneered in applying in vivo imaging to monitor regeneration of DR axons using wide-field microscopy and H line of thy1-YFP mice. These studies have led us to a novel hypothesis about why DR axons are prevented from regenerating within the spinal cord(11). In H line of thy1-YFP mice, distinct YFP+ axons are superficially positioned, which allows several axons to be monitored simultaneously. We have learned that DR axons arriving at DREZ are better imaged in lumbar than in cervical spinal cord. In the present report we describe several strategies that we have found useful to assure successful long-term and repeated imaging of regenerating DR axons. These include methods that eliminate repeated intubation and respiratory interruption, minimize surgery-associated stress and scar formation, and acquire stable images at high resolution without phototoxicity.

In vivo imaging of dorsal root regeneration: rapid immobilization and presynaptic differentiation at the CNS/PNS border.

Dorsal root (DR) axons regenerate in the PNS but turn around or stop at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the entrance into the CNS. Earlier studies that relied on conventional tracing techniques or postmortem analyses attributed the regeneration failure to growth inhibitors and lack of intrinsic growth potential. Here, we report the first in vivo imaging study of DR regeneration. Fluorescently labeled, large-diameter DR axons in thy1-YFPH mice elongated through a DR crush site, but not a transection site, and grew along the root at >1.5 mm/d with little variability. Surprisingly, they rarely turned around at the DREZ upon encountering astrocytes, but penetrated deeper into the CNS territory, where they rapidly stalled and then remained completely immobile or stable, even after conditioning lesions that enhanced growth along the root. Stalled axon tips and adjacent shafts were intensely immunolabeled with synapse markers. Ultrastructural analysis targeted to the DREZ enriched with recently arrived axons additionally revealed abundant axonal profiles exhibiting presynaptic features such as synaptic vesicles aggregated at active zones, but not postsynaptic features. These data suggest that axons are neither repelled nor continuously inhibited at the DREZ by growth-inhibitory molecules but are rapidly stabilized as they invade the CNS territory of the DREZ, forming presynaptic terminal endings on non-neuronal cells. Our work introduces a new experimental paradigm to the investigation of DR regeneration and may help to induce significant regeneration after spinal root injuries.