miR-34a regulates macrophage-associated inflammation and angiogenesis in alcohol-induced liver injury.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) is a syndrome of progressive inflammatory liver injury and vascular remodeling associated with long-term heavy intake of ethanol. Elevated miR-34a expression, macrophage activation, and liver angiogenesis in ALD and their correlation with the degree of inflammation and fibrosis have been reported. The current study aims to characterize the functional role of miR-34a-regulated macrophage- associated angiogenesis during ALD. METHODS RESULTS: We identified that knockout of miR-34a in 5 weeks of ethanol-fed mice significantly decreased the total liver histopathology score and miR-34a expression, along with the inhibited liver inflammation and angiogenesis by reduced macrophage infiltration and CD31/VEGF-A expression. Treatment of murine macrophages (RAW 264.7) with lipopolysaccharide (20 ng/mL) for 24 h significantly increased miR-34a expression, along with the enhanced M1/M2 phenotype changes and reduced Sirt1 expression. Silencing of miR-34a significantly increased oxygen consumption rate (OCR) in ethanol treated macrophages, and decreased lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of M1 phenotypes in cultured macrophages by upregulation of Sirt1. Furthermore, the expressions of miR-34a and its target Sirt1, macrophage polarization, and angiogenic phenotypes were significantly altered in isolated macrophages from ethanol-fed mouse liver specimens compared to controls. TLR4/miR-34a knockout mice and miR-34a Morpho/AS treated mice displayed less sensitivity to alcohol-associated injury, along with the enhanced Sirt1 and M2 markers in isolated macrophages, as well as reduced angiogenesis and hepatic expressions of inflammation markers MPO, LY6G, CXCL1, and CXCL2. CONCLUSION: Our results show that miR-34a-mediated Sirt1 signaling in macrophages is essential for steatohepatitis and angiogenesis during alcohol-induced liver injury. These findings provide new insight into the function of microRNA-regulated liver inflammation and angiogenesis and the implications for reversing steatohepatitis with potential therapeutic benefits in human alcohol-associated liver diseases.

Dysbiosis in gastrointestinal pathophysiology: Role of the gut microbiome in Gulf War Illness.

Gulf War Illness (GWI) has been reported in 25%-35% of veterans returned from the Gulf war. Symptoms of GWI are varied and include both neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms as well as chronic fatigue. Development of GWI has been associated with chemical exposure particularly with exposure to pyridostigmine bromide (PB) and permethrin. Recent studies have found that the pathology of GWI is connected to changes in the gut microbiota, that is the gut dysbiosis. In studies using animal models, the exposure to PB and permethrin resulted in similar changes in the gut microbiome as these found in GW veterans with GWI. Studies using animal models have also shown that phytochemicals like curcumin are beneficial in reducing the symptoms and that the extracellular vesicles (EV) released from gut bacteria and from the intestinal epithelium can both promote diseases and suppress diseases through the intercellular communication mechanisms. The intestinal epithelium cells produce EVs and these EVs of intestinal epithelium origin are found to suppress inflammatory bowel disease severity, suggesting the benefits of utilizing EV in treatments. On the contrary, EV from the plasma of septic mice enhanced the level of proinflammatory cytokines in vitro and neutrophils and macrophages in vivo, suggesting differences in the EV depending on the types of cells they were originated and/or influences of environmental changes. These studies suggest that targeting the EV that specifically have positive influences may become a new therapeutic strategy in the treatment of veterans with GWI.

Liver-specific deletion of microRNA-34a alleviates ductular reaction and liver fibrosis during experimental cholestasis.

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic liver disease characterized by inflammatory responses and fibrotic scar formation leading to cholestasis. Ductular reaction and liver fibrosis are typical liver changes seen in human PSC and cholestasis patients. The current study aimed to clarify the role of liver-specific microRNA-34a in the cholestasis-associated ductular reaction and liver fibrosis. We demonstrated that miR-34a expression was significantly increased in human PSC livers along with the enhanced ductular reaction, cellular senescence, and liver fibrosis. A liver-specific miR-34a knockout mouse was established by crossing floxed miR-34a mice with albumin-promoter-driven Cre mice. Bile duct ligation (BDL) induced liver injury characterized by necrosis, fibrosis, and immune cell infiltration. In contrast, liver-specific miR-34a knockout in BDL mice resulted in decreased biliary ductular pathology associated with the reduced cholangiocyte senescence and fibrotic responses. The miR-34a-mediated ductular reactions may be functioning through Sirt-1-mediated senescence and fibrosis. The hepatocyte-derived conditioned medium promoted LPS-induced fibrotic responses and senescence in cholangiocytes, and miR-34a inhibitor suppressed these effects, further supporting the involvement of paracrine regulation. In conclusion, we demonstrated that liver-specific miR-34a plays an important role in ductular reaction and fibrotic responses in a BDL mouse model of cholestatic liver disease.

Endothelial dysfunction in pathological processes of chronic liver disease during aging.

Aging is associated with gradual changes in liver structure and physiological/pathological functions in hepatic cells including hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, Kupffer cells, hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs). LSECs are specialized hepatic endothelial cells that regulate liver homeostasis. These cells actively impact the hepatic microenvironment as they have fenestrations and a thin morphology to allow substance exchange between circulating blood and the liver tissue. As aging occurs, LSECs have a reduction in both the number and size of fenestrations, which is referred to as pseudocapillarization. This along with the aging of the liver leads to increased oxidative stress, decreased availability of nitric oxide, decreased hepatic blood flow, and increased inflammatory cytokines in LSECs. Vascular aging can also lead to hepatic hypoxia, HSC activation, and liver fibrosis. In this review, we described the basic structure of LSECs, and the effect of LSECs on hepatic inflammation and fibrosis during aging process. We briefly summarized the changes of hepatic microcirculation during liver inflammation, the effect of aging on the clearance function of LSECs, the interactions between LSECs and immunity, hepatocytes or other hepatic nonparenchymal cells, and the therapeutic intervention of liver diseases by targeting LSECs and vascular system. Since LSECs play an important role in the development of liver fibrosis and the changes of LSEC phenotype occur in the early stage of liver fibrosis, the study of LSECs in the fibrotic liver is valuable for the detection of early liver fibrosis and the early intervention of fibrotic response.

Kupffer Cells: Inflammation Pathways and Cell-Cell Interactions in Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease.

Chronic alcohol consumption is linked to the development of alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD). This disease is characterized by a clinical spectrum ranging from steatosis to hepatocellular carcinoma. Several cell types are involved in ALD progression, including hepatic macrophages. Kupffer cells (KCs) are the resident macrophages of the liver involved in the progression of ALD by activating pathways that lead to the production of cytokines and chemokines. In addition, KCs are involved in the production of reactive oxygen species. Reactive oxygen species are linked to the induction of oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver. These events are activated by the bacterial endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide, that is released from the gastrointestinal tract through the portal vein to the liver. Lipopolysaccharide is recognized by receptors on KCs that are responsible for triggering several pathways that activate proinflammatory cytokines involved in alcohol-induced liver injury. In addition, KCs activate hepatic stellate cells that are involved in liver fibrosis. Novel strategies to treat ALD aim at targeting Kupffer cells. These interventions modulate Kupffer cell activation or macrophage polarization. Evidence from mouse models and early clinical studies in patients with ALD injury supports the notion that pathogenic macrophage subsets can be successfully translated into novel treatment options for patients with this disease.