Human milk oligosaccharides, antimicrobial drugs, and the gut microbiota of term neonates: observations from the KOALA birth cohort study.

The infant gut microbiota affects childhood health. This pioneer microbiota may be vulnerable to antibiotic exposures, but could be supported by prebiotic oligosaccharides found in breast milk and some infant formulas. We sought to characterize the effects of several exposures on the neonatal gut microbiota, including human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), and infant/maternal antimicrobial exposures. We profiled the stool microbiota of 1023 one-month-old infants from the KOALA Birth Cohort using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. We quantified 15 HMOs in breast milk from the mothers of 220 infants, using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Both breastfeeding and antibiotic exposure decreased gut microbial diversity, but each was associated with contrasting shifts in microbiota composition. Other factors associated with microbiota composition included C-section, homebirth, siblings, and exposure to animals. Neither infant exposure to oral antifungals nor maternal exposure to antibiotics during pregnancy were associated with infant microbiota composition. Four distinct groups of breast milk HMO compositions were evident, corresponding to maternal Secretor status and Lewis group combinations defined by the presence/absence of certain fucosylated HMOs. However, we found the strongest evidence for microbiota associations between two non-fucosylated HMOs: 6'-sialyllactose (6'-SL) and lacto-N-hexaose (LNH), which were associated with lower and higher relative abundances of Bifidobacterium, respectively. Among 111 exclusively formula-fed infants, the GOS-supplemented formula was associated with a lower relative abundance of Clostridium perfringens. In conclusion, the gut microbiota is sensitive to some prebiotic and antibiotic exposures during early infancy and understanding their effects could inform future strategies for safeguarding a health-promoting infant gut microbiota.

Microbial dynamics and bioreactor performance are interlinked with organic matter removal from wastewater treatment plant effluent.

Optimizing bioreactor performance for organic matter removal can achieve sustainable and energy-efficient micropollutant removal in subsequent tertiary treatment. Bioreactor performance heavily depends on its resident microbial community; hence, a deeper understanding of community dynamics is essential. The microbial communities of three different bioreactors (biological activated carbon, moving bed biofilm reactor, sand filter), used for organic matter removal from wastewater treatment effluent, were characterized by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequence analysis. An interdependency between bioreactor performance and microbial community profile was observed. Overall, Proteobacteria was the most predominant phylum, and Comamonadaceae was the most predominant family in all bioreactors. The relative abundance of the genus Roseococcus was positively correlated with organic matter removal. A generalized Lotka-Volterra (gLV) model was established to understand the interactions in the microbial community. By identifying microbial dynamics and their role in bioreactors, a strategy can be developed to improve bioreactor performance.

Water and biofilm in drinking water distribution systems in the Netherlands.

To keep the high quality of drinking water in the future for non-chlorinated drinking water systems, knowledge about the variables that most strongly affect this quality is necessary in order to know where to focus on and possibly even change aspects of drinking water production and distribution. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate which variables (source of drinking water, growth potential and pipe material type) have the biggest influence on bacterial community composition and biomass concentration of drinking water and biofilm in distribution systems. Ten different distribution systems were sampled for water and biofilm, obtained from four different pipe materials, throughout the Netherlands. The distribution systems are supplied either with drinking water produced from groundwater or surface water, and differ in drinking water quality parameters such as the growth potential. We found a significant relationship for growth potential and ATP concentration in water, but for the ATP in the biofilm none of the parameters showed a significant effect. Furthermore, the source of the drinking water and the pipe material did not significantly affect the ATP concentration in water and biofilm. The bacterial composition of in both water and biofilm was significantly different between distribution systems delivering water with low and high growth potential and between drinking water produced from groundwater or surface water. In contrast, the different pipe materials did not significantly affect composition of biofilm-associated communities. We conclude from these results that the growth potential of the treated water best explains the variation in biomass and bacterial composition in water and biofilm of non-chlorinated drinking water distribution systems followed by the drinking water source, whereas pipe materials seem to be of lesser importance.

Influence of pipe materials on the microbial community in unchlorinated drinking water and biofilm.

Biodegradable compounds can cause undesired microbial growth in drinking water systems and these compounds can originate from the water or pipe materials used in drinking water systems. The aim of our study was to determine the influence of different pipe materials on the microbial populations in water and biofilm under semi-stagnant conditions. The microbial communities in biofilm and water, which were in contact with seven different materials, were characterized by determining ATP concentrations, microbial composition gene copy numbers of some specific microbial groups. The ATP concentration in water and biofilm varied between the different materials with glass (negative control) < copper < PVCC < PE-Xc < PE-Xb < PE-100 < PVC-P. Gene copy numbers of Legionella spp., Mycobacterium spp., Pseudomonas spp., Aeromonas spp., fungi and Vermamoeba vermiformis were also higher for PVC-P and PE than for glass, copper and PVCC. The bacterial community composition in water and biofilm varied between materials as well. PERMANOVA and CAP analysis demonstrated that copper and PVC-P are different when compared to the other materials. Furthermore, bacterial community composition and ATP concentrations in water and biofilm were similar after eight and 16 weeks incubation, but differed from results obtained after one week. Finally, the ATP, the specific microbial groups and the bacterial community composition also differed between water and biofilm on each material. We conclude from our study that pipe material is an important factor that influences the biomass concentration, abundance of specific microorganisms and the bacterial community composition in distribution systems with unchlorinated drinking water.

Protective effects of Lactobacillus plantarum strain P1 against toxicity of the environmental oestrogen di-n-butyl phthalate in rats.

Phthalates are contaminants widely distributed in the food-chain, and they are considered as important environmental oestrogens in our lives. In the present study, eight strains of lactic acid bacteria were isolated for their ability to adsorb di-n-butyl-phthalate (DBP), and one of the strains, Lactobacillus plantarum strain P1, was selected for more detailed analyses of its phthalate adsorption capacity in vitro. This study also evaluated the in vivo protective effects of strain P1 against DBP toxicity in rats. Sixteen rats were divided into four groups, and animals received by oral gavage every other day for a period of one month saline with or without strain P1 at 2×1011 cfu/kg followed by maize oil with or without DBP (50 mg/kg). Strain P1 could adsorb more DBP than saline alone, and the concentration of mono-n-butyl phthalate in urine was decreased in animals receiving P1. Furthermore, oestrogenic effects of the different treatments were assessed through counting of sperm and observation of testis, and strain P1 could protect the sexual organs of male rats. Our results suggested that P1 is effective against phthalate toxicity due to its ability to adsorb DBP in vivo and could be considered as a new dietary therapeutic strategy against environmental phtalate toxicity.

Effects of seasonality and previous logging on faecal helminth-microbiota associations in wild lemurs.

Gastrointestinal helminth-microbiota associations are shaped by various ecological processes. The effect of the ecological context of the host on the bacterial microbiome and gastrointestinal helminth parasites has been tested in a number of ecosystems and experimentally. This study takes the important step to look at these two groups at the same time and to start to examine how these communities interact in a changing host environment. Fresh faecal samples (N = 335) from eight wild Eulemur populations were collected over 2 years across Madagascar. We used 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing to characterise the bacterial microbiota composition, and faecal flotation to isolate and morphologically identify nematode eggs. Infections with nematodes of the genera Callistoura and Lemuricola occurred in all lemur populations. Seasonality significantly contributed to the observed variation in microbiota composition, especially in the dry deciduous forest. Microbial richness and Lemuricola spp. infection prevalence were highest in a previously intensely logged site, whereas Callistoura spp. showed no such pattern. In addition, we observed significant correlations between gastrointestinal parasites and bacterial microbiota composition in these lemurs, with 0.4-0.7% of the variation in faecal bacterial microbiota composition being explained by helminth infections. With this study, we show effects of environmental conditions on gastrointestinal nematodes and bacterial interactions in wild lemurs and believe it is essential to consider the potential role of microbiome-parasite associations on the hosts' GI stability, health, and survival.

Domesticated equine species and their derived hybrids differ in their fecal microbiota.

BACKGROUND: Compared to horses and ponies, donkeys have increased degradation of dietary fiber. The longer total mean retention time of feed in the donkey gut has been proposed to be the basis of this, because of the increased time available for feed to be acted upon by enzymes and the gut microbiota. However, differences in terms of microbial concentrations and/or community composition in the hindgut may also underpin the increased degradation of fiber in donkeys. Therefore, a study was conducted to assess if differences existed between the fecal microbiota of pony, donkey and hybrids derived from them (i.e. pony × donkey) when fed the same forage diet. RESULTS: Fecal community composition of prokaryotes and anaerobic fungi significantly differed between equine types. The relative abundance of two bacterial genera was significantly higher in donkey compared to both pony and pony x donkey: Lachnoclostridium 10 and 'probable genus 10' from the Lachnospiraceae family. The relative abundance of Piromyces was significantly lower in donkey compared to pony × donkey, with pony not significantly differing from either of the other equine types. In contrast, the uncultivated genus SK3 was only found in donkey (4 of the 8 animals). The number of anaerobic fungal OTUs was also significantly higher in donkey than in the other two equine types, with no significant differences found between pony and pony × donkey. Equine types did not significantly differ with respect to prokaryotic alpha diversity, fecal dry matter content or fecal concentrations of bacteria, archaea and anaerobic fungi. CONCLUSIONS: Donkey fecal microbiota differed from that of both pony and pony × donkey. These differences related to a higher relative abundance and diversity of taxa with known, or speculated, roles in plant material degradation. These findings are consistent with the previously reported increased fiber degradation in donkeys compared to ponies, and suggest that the hindgut microbiota plays a role. This offers novel opportunities for pony and pony × donkey to extract more energy from dietary fiber via microbial mediated strategies. This could potentially decrease the need for energy dense feeds which are a risk factor for gut-mediated disease.

Multi-kingdom characterization of the core equine fecal microbiota based on multiple equine (sub)species.

BACKGROUND: Equine gut microbiology studies to date have primarily focused on horses and ponies, which represent only one of the eight extant equine species. This is despite asses and mules comprising almost half of the world's domesticated equines, and donkeys being superior to horses/ponies in their ability to degrade dietary fiber. Limited attention has also been given to commensal anaerobic fungi and archaea even though anaerobic fungi are potent fiber degrading organisms, the activity of which is enhanced by methanogenic archaea. Therefore, the objective of this study was to broaden the current knowledge of bacterial, anaerobic fungal and archaeal diversity of the equine fecal microbiota to multiple species of equines. Core taxa shared by all the equine fecal samples (n = 70) were determined and an overview given of the microbiota across different equine types (horse, donkey, horse × donkey and zebra). RESULTS: Equine type was associated with differences in both fecal microbial concentrations and community composition. Donkey was generally most distinct from the other equine types, with horse and zebra not differing. Despite this, a common bacterial core of eight OTUs (out of 2070) and 16 genus level groupings (out of 231) was found in all the fecal samples. This bacterial core represented a much larger proportion of the equine fecal microbiota than previously reported, primarily due to the detection of predominant core taxa belonging to the phyla Kiritimatiellaeota (formerly Verrucomicrobia subdivision 5) and Spirochaetes. The majority of the core bacterial taxa lack cultured representation. Archaea and anaerobic fungi were present in all animals, however, no core taxon was detected for either despite several taxa being prevalent and predominant. CONCLUSIONS: Whilst differences were observed between equine types, a core fecal microbiota existed across all the equines. This core was composed primarily of a few predominant bacterial taxa, the majority of which are novel and lack cultured representation. The lack of microbial cultures representing the predominant taxa needs to be addressed, as their availability is essential to gain fundamental knowledge of the microbial functions that underpin the equine hindgut ecosystem.

Modification of the equine gastrointestinal microbiota by Jerusalem artichoke meal supplementation.

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of natural prebiotic active compounds on the microbial composition in different regions of the equine gastrointestinal tract. Twelve adult horses (body weight [bwt] 534 ± 64.5 kg; age 14 ± 7.5 years) were randomly divided into two feeding groups. Six horses received a basal diet consisting of 1.5 kg hay/100 kg bwt x d-1 and oat grains equal to 1.19 g starch/kg bwt x d-1, supplemented with Jerusalem artichoke meal providing prebiotic fructooligosaccharides + inulin in a quantity of 0.15 g/kg bwt x d-1. The remaining horses received a placebo added to the basal diet. The horses were fed for 21 d and euthanized at the end of the feeding period. Digesta samples from different parts of the gastrointestinal tract were taken, DNA extracted and the V1-V2 region of the 16S rRNA gene amplified. Supplementation with the prebiotic increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus (P < 0.05), with a concurrent reduction of the relative abundance of Streptococcus mainly in the stomach (P < 0.05). In the hindgut, the supplemental prebiotic also increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus but further reduced the relative abundance of fibrolytic bacteria, specifically the unclassified members of the families Lachnospiraceae (P < 0.05) and Ruminococcaceae. The relative abundance of the genus Ruminococcus increased solely in the caecum and colon transversum. Overall, the addition of the prebiotic significantly increased the diversity in nearly all parts of the gastrointestinal tract (P < 0.05). The feeding of this natural prebiotic compound to horses had an impact on the microbial community in the entire gastrointestinal tract. Furthermore, the effect on the bacterial community in the foregut (especially the stomach) was more pronounced in comparison to the effect in the hindgut. Therefore, the impact on stomach health should be carefully considered.

Legionella growth potential of drinking water produced by a reverse osmosis pilot plant.

Treatment processes, such as membrane filtration with reverse osmosis (RO), are used to produce drinking water with a high degree of biostability. To our knowledge, the influence of RO water on biofilm formation and growth of L. pneumophila has not yet been investigated. Therefore, this study aimed (i) to determine the Legionella growth potential of (remineralised) RO-water produced by a pilot plant and to compare this to conventional treated groundwater, and (ii) to determine if different pipe materials, in contact with remineralised RO-water, can cause growth of L. pneumophila. The Legionella growth potential of water was determined with the boiler biofilm monitor (BBM) that mimics the flow of water in a premise plumbing system. The Legionella growth potential of materials in contact with remineralised RO-water was determined by using the biomass production potential (BPP)-test. ATP concentrations in the biofilm on the glass rings from the BBM fed with (remineralised) RO water fluctuated around 100 pg ATP cm-2. In contrast, BBMs fed with conventionally treated water resulted in ten-fold higher ATP concentrations in the biofilm. Moreover, conventionally treated water had a Legionella growth potential that was 1000-fold higher than that of (remineralised) RO-water. Furthermore, glass, copper and PVC-C had the lowest biofilm concentrations and Legionella growth potential in the BPP-test, followed by PE-Xb, PE-Xc and PE-100. The highest biofilm concentration and Legionella growth potential were with PVC-P. Hence, our study demonstrated that remineralised RO-water did not enhance growth of L. pneumophila in the BBM that mimics the premises plumbing system. However, when PE or PVC-P materials are used growth of L. pneumophila can still occur in the premises plumbing system despite the high quality of the supplied remineralised RO-water.

Association between Psychosocial Stress and Fecal Microbiota in Pregnant Women.

Maternal prenatal psychosocial stress is associated with altered child emotional and behavioral development. One potential underlying mechanism is that prenatal psychosocial stress affects child outcomes via the mother's, and in turn the child's, intestinal microbiota. This study investigates the first step of this mechanism: the relation between psychosocial stress and fecal microbiota in pregnant mothers. Mothers (N = 70) provided a late pregnancy stool sample and filled in questionnaires on general and pregnancy-specific stress and anxiety. Bacterial DNA was extracted and analysed by Illumina HiSeq sequencing of PCR-amplified 16 S ribosomal RNA gene fragments. Associations between maternal general anxiety and microbial composition were found. No associations between the other measured psychosocial stress variables and the relative abundance of microbial groups were detected. This study shows associations between maternal pregnancy general anxiety and microbial composition, providing first evidence of a mechanism through which psychological symptoms in pregnancy may affect the offspring.

Optimized procedures for generating an enhanced, near physiological 2D culture system from porcine intestinal organoids.

An important practical limitation of the three-dimensional geometry of stem-cell derived intestinal organoids is that it prevents easy access to the apical epithelium for testing food components, microorganisms, bioactive and toxic compounds. To this end, we here report on a new robust method for generating confluent intestinal cell monolayers from single-cell suspensions of enzymatically-dissociated porcine organoids using modified culture conditions. With this method, cell seeding densities can be standardised, overcoming problems with methods based on mechanical dissociation of organoids. Confluent monolayers formed tight junctions with high transepithelial electrical resistance in three days and could be used in experiments for up to two weeks. Multilineage differentiation of ileal stem cells was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR of cell-specific transcripts, also unequivocally confirming the controversial existence of Paneth-like cells in the porcine small intestine. The method described here is useful to standardize primary epithelial monolayer formation from intestinal organoids and allows rapid and robust studies of intestinal physiology.

Linseed oil and DGAT1 K232A polymorphism: Effects on methane emission, energy and nitrogen metabolism, lactation performance, ruminal fermentation, and rumen microbial composition of Holstein-Friesian cows.

Complex interactions between rumen microbiota, cow genetics, and diet composition may exist. Therefore, the effect of linseed oil, DGAT1 K232A polymorphism (DGAT1), and the interaction between linseed oil and DGAT1 on CH4 and H2 emission, energy and N metabolism, lactation performance, ruminal fermentation, and rumen bacterial and archaeal composition was investigated. Twenty-four lactating Holstein-Friesian cows (i.e., 12 with DGAT1 KK genotype and 12 with DGAT1 AA genotype) were fed 2 diets in a crossover design: a control diet and a linseed oil diet (LSO) with a difference of 22 g/kg of dry matter (DM) in fat content between the 2 diets. Both diets consisted of 40% corn silage, 30% grass silage, and 30% concentrates (DM basis). Apparent digestibility, lactation performance, N and energy balance, and CH4 emission were measured in climate respiration chambers, and rumen fluid samples were collected using the oral stomach tube technique. No linseed oil by DGAT1 interactions were observed for digestibility, milk production and composition, energy and N balance, CH4 and H2 emissions, and rumen volatile fatty acid concentrations. The DGAT1 KK genotype was associated with a lower proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in milk fat, and with a higher milk fat and protein content, and proportion of saturated fatty acids in milk fat compared with the DGAT1 AA genotype, whereas the fat- and protein-corrected milk yield was unaffected by DGAT1. Also, DGAT1 did not affect nutrient digestibility, CH4 or H2 emission, ruminal fermentation or ruminal archaeal and bacterial concentrations. Rumen bacterial and archaeal composition was also unaffected in terms of the whole community, whereas at the genus level the relative abundances of some bacterial genera were found to be affected by DGAT1. The DGAT1 KK genotype was associated with a lower metabolizability (i.e., ratio of metabolizable to gross energy intake), and with a tendency for a lower milk N efficiency compared with the DGAT1 AA genotype. The LSO diet tended to decrease CH4 production (g/d) by 8%, and significantly decreased CH4 yield (g/kg of DM intake) by 6% and CH4 intensity (g/kg of fat- and protein-corrected milk) by 11%, but did not affect H2 emission. The LSO diet also decreased ruminal acetate molar proportion, the acetate to propionate ratio, and the archaea to bacteria ratio, whereas ruminal propionate molar proportion and milk N efficiency increased. Ruminal bacterial and archaeal composition tended to be affected by diet in terms of the whole community, with several bacterial genera found to be significantly affected by diet. These results indicate that DGAT1 does not affect enteric CH4 emission and production pathways, but that it does affect traits other than lactation characteristics, including metabolizability, N efficiency, and the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium. Additionally, linseed oil reduces CH4 emission independent of DGAT1 and affects the rumen microbiota and its fermentative activity.

Antibiotics in 16-day-old broilers temporarily affect microbial and immune parameters in the gut.

Animal health benefits from a stable intestinal homeostasis, for which proper development and functioning of the intestinal microbiota and immune system are essential. It has been established that changes in microbial colonization in early life (the first 2 wk post hatch) impacts the functioning of the adult gut and the associated crosstalk between microbiota and intestinal mucosal cells. The aim of the present study was to study the effect of the administration of antibiotics later in life (d 15 to 20 post hatch) on microbiota and immune parameters. For this purpose, chickens received from 15 d post hatch during 5 d amoxicillin or enrofloxacin through their drinking water. Before and at 6, 16, and 27 d after start of the administration of antibiotics, the composition of the microbiota in the jejunum was determined using a 16S ribosomal RNA gene-targeted DNA microarray, the CHICKChip. At 6 d after the start of the administration of the antibiotics, the composition and diversity of the microbiota were affected significantly (P < 0.05), but this change was small and observed only temporarily since differences disappeared at 16 d after initiating treatment with amoxillin and at 27 d after starting treatment with enrofloxacin. Intestinal morphology and development were not visibly affected since there were no differences between villus/crypt ratios and numbers of PAS+ and PCNA+ cells in the duodenum and jejunum at any time point. At 16 d after the start of antibiotic administration, the number of CD4+ T-cells and CD8+ T-cells in the duodenum was lower compared to the control animals; however, this difference was not significant. At some time points, significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed among the groups to locally expressed IL-8, IL-1ß, IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-4 mRNA. However, this effect was not long lasting, as differences that were observed at 16 d after starting the treatment had disappeared at 27 d after treatment was started. The results of this study indicate that later in the broiler's life, antibiotics only temporarily affect intestinal microbial and immune parameters.

Changes in rumen microbiota composition and in situ degradation kinetics during the dry period and early lactation as affected by rate of increase of concentrate allowance.

Changes in rumen microbiota and in situ degradation kinetics were studied in 12 rumen-cannulated Holstein Friesian dairy cows during the dry period and early lactation. The effect of a rapid (RAP) or gradual (GRAD) postpartum (pp) rate of increase of concentrate allowance was also investigated. Cows were fed for ad libitum intake and had free access to a mixed ration consisting of chopped wheat straw (dry period only), grass silage, corn silage, and soybean meal. Treatment consisted of either a rapid (1.0 kg of dry matter/d; n = 6) or gradual (0.25 kg of dry matter/d; n = 6) increase of concentrate allowance (up to 10.9 kg of dry matter/d), starting at 4 d pp. In whole rumen contents, bacterial community composition was assessed using samples from 50, 30, and 10 d antepartum (ap), and 3, 9, 16, 30, 44, 60, and 80 d pp, and protozoal and archaeal community composition using samples from 10 d ap, and 16 and 44 d pp. Intake of fermentable organic matter, starch, and sugar was temporarily greater in RAP than GRAD at 16 d pp. Bacterial community richness was higher during the dry period than during the lactation. A rapid increase in concentrate allowance decreased bacterial community richness at 9 and 16 d pp compared with a gradual increase in concentrate allowance, whereas from 30 d pp onward richness of RAP and GRAD was similar. In general, the relative abundances of Bacteroidales and Aeromonadales were greater, and those of Clostridiales, Fibrobacterales, and Spirochaetales were smaller, during the lactation compared with the dry period. An interaction between treatment and sampling day was observed for some bacterial community members, and most of the protozoal and archaeal community members. Transition to lactation increased the relative abundance of Epidinium and Entodinium, but reduced the relative abundance of Ostracodinium. Archaea from genus Methanobrevibacter dominated during both the dry period and lactation. However, during lactation the abundance of the methylotrophic Methanomassiliicoccaceae and Methanosphaera increased. The in situ degradation of organic matter, neutral detergent fiber, starch, and crude protein was neither affected by treatment nor by transition from the dry period to lactation. Results show that the composition of the rumen microbiota can change quickly from the dry period to the lactation period, in particular with a rapid increase in fermentable substrate supply postpartum, but this was not associated with changes in rumen degradation kinetics.

Effects of Supplementation of the Synbiotic Ecologic® 825/FOS P6 on Intestinal Barrier Function in Healthy Humans: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics have been suggested as dietary strategies to improve intestinal barrier function. This study aimed to assess the effect of two weeks synbiotic supplementation on intestinal permeability under basal and stressed conditions. Secondary aims were the assessment of two weeks synbiotic supplementation on systemic immune function and gastrointestinal symptoms including defecation pattern. DESIGN: Twenty healthy adults completed a double-blind, controlled, randomized, parallel design study. INTERVENTION: Groups either received synbiotic (1.5 × 1010 CFU Ecologic® 825 + 10 g fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS P6) per day) or control supplements for two weeks. OUTCOMES: Intestinal segment specific permeability was assessed non-invasively by oral administration of multiple sugar probes and, subsequently, assessing the excretion of these probes in urine. This test was conducted at baseline and at the end of intervention, in the absence and in the presence of an indomethacin challenge. Indomethacin was applied to induce a compromised gut state. Plasma zonulin, cytokines and chemokines were measured at baseline and at the end of intervention. Gastrointestinal symptoms and stool frequency were recorded at baseline and daily during intervention. RESULTS: Significantly more male subjects were in the synbiotic group compared to the control group (P = 0.025). Indomethacin significantly increased urinary lactulose/rhamnose ratio versus without indomethacin, both in the control group (P = 0.005) and in the synbiotic group (P = 0.017). Urinary sugar recoveries and ratios, plasma levels of zonulin, cytokines and chemokines, and gastrointestinal symptom scores were not significantly different after control or synbiotic intervention. Stool frequency within the synbiotic group was significantly increased during synbiotic intervention compared to baseline (P = 0.039) and higher compared to control intervention (P = 0.045). CONCLUSION: Two weeks Ecologic® 825/FOS P6 supplementation increased stool frequency, but did not affect intestinal permeability neither under basal nor under indomethacin-induced stressed conditions, immune function or gastrointestinal symptoms in healthy adults.

Long-term effects of early life microbiota disturbance on adaptive immunity in laying hens.

Due to an interplay between intestinal microbiota and immune system, disruption of intestinal microbiota composition during immune development may have consequences for immune responses later in life. The present study investigated the effects of antibiotic treatment in the first weeks of life on the specific antibody response later in life in chickens. Layer chicks received an antibiotic cocktail consisting of vancomycin, neomycin, metronidazole, and amphotericin-B by oral gavage every 12 h, and ampicillin and colistin in drinking water for the first week of life. After the first week of life, chicks received ampicillin and colistin in drinking water for two more weeks. Control birds received no antibiotic cocktail and plain drinking water. Fecal microbiota composition was determined during antibiotic treatment (d 8 and 22), two weeks after cessation of antibiotic treatment (d 36), and at the end of the experimental period at d 175 using a 16S ribosomal RNA gene targeted microarray, the Chicken Intestinal Tract Chip (ChickChip). During antibiotic treatment fecal microbiota composition differed strongly between treatment groups. Fecal microbiota of antibiotic treated birds consisted mainly of Proteobacteria, and in particular E.coli, whereas fecal microbiota of control birds consisted mainly of Firmicutes, such as lactobacilli and clostridia. Two weeks after cessation of antibiotic treatment fecal microbiota composition of antibiotic treated birds had recovered and was similar to that of control birds. On d 105, 12 weeks after cessation of antibiotic treatment, chicks of both treatment groups received an intra-tracheal lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/human serum albumin (HuSA) challenge. Antibody titers against LPS and HuSA were measured 10 days after administration of the challenge. While T cell independent antibody titers (LPS) were not affected by antibiotic treatment, antibiotic treated birds showed lower T cell dependent antibody titers (HuSA) compared with control birds. In conclusion, intestinal microbial dysbiosis early in life may still have effects on the specific antibody response months after cessation of antibiotic treatment and despite an apparent recovery in microbiota composition.

In vitro fermentation of prebiotic carbohydrates by intestinal microbiota in the presence of Lactobacillus amylovorus DSM 16998.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the assimilation of the prebiotics fructooligosaccharides (FOS), galactooligosaccharides (GOS), and Konjac glucomannan oligosaccharides (KGMO) by three human (H1, H2 and H3) and pig (P1, P2 and P3) faecal microbiotas in the presence of the potentially probiotic strain Lactobacillus amylovorus DSM 16698, using an in vitro batch fermentation model. Total bacteria and L. amylovorus populations were quantified using qPCR and biochemical features (pH, production of short chain fatty acids (SCFA), lactate, ammonia, and carbohydrate assimilation) were determined. L. amylovorus did not have a competitive advantage under in vitro conditions, reflected by its reduced relative abundance during fermentation despite the carbohydrate sources added. Pig microbiota sustained more stable probiotic counts. Intermittently produced lactate was possibly assimilated by the microbiota and converted to other SCFA as the carbohydrates were assimilated, with H3 probably having a methanogenic metabolism with high lactate and acetate consumption except in the presence of FOS, which assimilation resulted in the highest total SCFA for this volunteer. Addition of FOS also resulted in lower pH and ammonia, which might have been used as nitrogen source by pig microbiota. KGMO needed longer fermentation periods to be completely assimilated by both human and porcine faecal microbiotas. Overall, our results reinforce the notion that care must be taken when generalising the effects claimed for a given probiotic or potentially probiotic strain, including the combination with different prebiotic substrates, since they may vary considerably among individuals, which is important when studying potentially pro- and prebiotic combinations for application as functional foods and feed ingredients.

Adaptation of faecal microbiota in sows after diet changes and consequences for in vitro fermentation capacity.

In vitro gas production studies are routinely used to assess the metabolic capacity of intestinal microbiota to ferment dietary fibre sources. The faecal inocula used during the in vitro gas production procedure are most often obtained from animals adapted to a certain diet. The present study was designed to assess whether 19 days of adaptation to a diet are sufficient for faecal inocula of pigs to reach a stable microbial composition and activity as determined by in vitro gas production. Eighteen multiparous sows were allotted to one of two treatments for three weeks: a diet high in fibre (H) or a diet low in fibre (L). After this 3-week period, the H group was transferred to the low fibre diet (HL-treatment) while the L group was transferred to the diet high in fibre (LH-treatment). Faecal samples were collected from each sow at 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16 and 19 days after the diet change and prepared as inoculum used for incubation with three contrasting fermentable substrates: oligofructose, soya pectin and cellulose. In addition, inocula were characterised using a phylogenetic microarray targeting the pig gastrointestinal tract microbiota. Time after diet change had an effect (P<0.05) on total gas production for the medium-fast fermentable substrates; soya pectin and oligofructose. For the more slowly fermentable cellulose, all measured fermentation parameters were consistently higher (P<0.05) for animals in the HL-treatment. Diet changes led to significant changes in relative abundance of specific bacteria, especially for members of the Bacteroidetes and Bacilli, which, respectively, increased or decreased for the LH-treatment, while changes were opposite for the HL-treatment. Changing the diet of sows led to changes in fermentation activity of the faecal microbiota and in composition of the microbiota over time. Adaptation of the microbiota as assessed by gas production occurred faster for LH-animals for fast fermentable substrates compared with HL-animals. Overall, adaptation of the large intestinal microbiota of sows as a result of ingestion of low and high fibre diets seems to take longer than 19 days, especially for the ability to ferment slowly fermentable substrates.

Molecular ecological tools to decipher the role of our microbial mass in obesity.

After birth, our gastrointestinal (GI) tract is colonised by a highly complex assemblage of microbes, collectively termed the GI microbiota, that develops intimate interactions with our body. Recent evidence indicates that the GI microbiota and its products may contribute to the development of obesity and related diseases. This, coupled with the current worldwide epidemic of obesity, has moved microbiome research into the spotlight of attention. Although the main cause of obesity and its associated metabolic complications is excess caloric intake compared with expenditure, differences in GI tract microbial ecology between individuals might be an important biomarker, mediator or new therapeutic target. This can be investigated using a diverse set of complementary so called -omics technologies, such as 16S ribosomal RNA gene-targeted composition profiling, metabolomics, metagenomics, metatranscriptomics and metaproteomics. This review aims to describe the different molecular approaches and their contributions to our understanding of the role of the GI microbiota in host energy homeostasis. Correspondingly, we highlight their respective strengths, but also try to create awareness for their specific limitations. However, it is currently still unclear which bacterial groups play a role in the development of obesity in humans. This might partly be explained by the heterogeneity in genotype, lifestyle, diet and the complex ethology of obesity and its associated metabolic disorders (OAMD). Nevertheless, recent research on this matter has shown a conceptual shift by focusing on more homogenous subpopulations, through the use of both anthropometric (weight, total body fat) as well as biochemical variables (insulin resistance, hyperlipidaemia) to define categories. Combined with technological advances, recent data suggests that an OAMD associated microbiota can be characterised by a potential pro-inflammatory composition, with less potential for the production of short chain fatty acids and butyrate in particular.