Highly-multiplexed and efficient long-amplicon PacBio and Nanopore sequencing of hundreds of full mitochondrial genomes.

BACKGROUND: Mitochondrial genome sequences have become critical to the study of biodiversity. Genome skimming and other short-read based methods are the most common approaches, but they are not well-suited to scale up to multiplexing hundreds of samples. Here, we report on a new approach to sequence hundreds to thousands of complete mitochondrial genomes in parallel using long-amplicon sequencing. We amplified the mitochondrial genome of 677 specimens in two partially overlapping amplicons and implemented an asymmetric PCR-based indexing approach to multiplex 1,159 long amplicons together on a single PacBio SMRT Sequel II cell. We also tested this method on Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) MinION R9.4 to assess if this method could be applied to other long-read technologies. We implemented several optimizations that make this method significantly more efficient than alternative mitochondrial genome sequencing methods. RESULTS: With the PacBio sequencing data we recovered at least one of the two fragments for 96% of samples (~ 80-90%) with mean coverage ~ 1,500x. The ONT data recovered less than 50% of input fragments likely due to low throughput and the design of the Barcoded Universal Primers which were optimized for PacBio sequencing. We compared a single mitochondrial gene alignment to half and full mitochondrial genomes and found, as expected, increased tree support with longer alignments, though whole mitochondrial genomes were not significantly better than half mitochondrial genomes. CONCLUSIONS: This method can effectively capture thousands of long amplicons in a single run and be used to build more robust phylogenies quickly and effectively. We provide several recommendations for future users depending on the evolutionary scale of their system. A natural extension of this method is to collect multi-locus datasets consisting of mitochondrial genomes and several long nuclear loci at once.

Sponge diversification in marine lakes: Implications for phylogeography and population genomic studies on sponges.

The relative influence of geography, currents, and environment on gene flow within sessile marine species remains an open question. Detecting subtle genetic differentiation at small scales is challenging in benthic populations due to large effective population sizes, general lack of resolution in genetic markers, and because barriers to dispersal often remain elusive. Marine lakes can circumvent confounding factors by providing discrete and replicated ecosystems. Using high-resolution double digest restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing (4826 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms, SNPs), we genotyped populations of the sponge Suberites diversicolor (n = 125) to test the relative importance of spatial scales (1-1400 km), local environmental conditions, and permeability of seascape barriers in shaping population genomic structure. With the SNP dataset, we show strong intralineage population structure, even at scales <10 km (average F ST = 0.63), which was not detected previously using single markers. Most variation was explained by differentiation between populations (AMOVA: 48.8%) with signatures of population size declines and bottlenecks per lake. Although the populations were strongly structured, we did not detect significant effects of geographic distance, local environments, or degree of connection to the sea on population structure, suggesting mechanisms such as founder events with subsequent priority effects may be at play. We show that the inclusion of morphologically cryptic lineages that can be detected with the COI marker can reduce the obtained SNP set by around 90%. Future work on sponge genomics should confirm that only one lineage is included. Our results call for a reassessment of poorly dispersing benthic organisms that were previously assumed to be highly connected based on low-resolution markers.

Phylogeography and taxonomy of Coleonyx elegans Gray 1845 (Squamata: Eublepharidae) in Mesoamerica: The Isthmus of Tehuantepec as an environmental barrier.

Population divergence leading to speciation is often explained by physical barriers causing allopatric distributions of historically connected populations. Environmental barriers have increasingly been shown to cause population divergence through local adaptation to distinct ecological characteristics. In this study, we evaluate population structuring and phylogeographic history within the Yucatán banded gecko Coleonyx elegans Gray 1845 to assess the role of both physical and environmental barriers in shaping the spatio-genetic distribution of a Mesoamerican tropical forest taxon. We generated RADseq and multi-locus Sanger datasets that included sampling across the entire species' range. Results find support for two distinct evolutionary lineages that diverged during the late Pliocene and show recent population expansions. Furthermore, these genetic lineages largely align with subspecies boundaries defined by morphology. Several mountain ranges identified as phylogeographic barriers in other taxa act as physical barriers to gene flow between the two clades. Despite the absence of a physical barrier between lineages across the lowland Isthmus of Tehuantepec, no introgression was observed. Here, a steep environmental cline associated with seasonality of precipitation corresponds exactly with the distributional limits of the lineages, whose closest samples are only 30 km apart. The combination of molecular and environmental evidence, and in conjunction with previous morphological evidence, allows us to reassess the current taxonomy in an integrative framework. Based on our findings, we elevate the previously recognized subspecies from the Pacific versant, the Colima banded gecko C. nemoralis Klauber 1945, to full species status and comment on conservation implications.

Geographic variation in morphology in the Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus Kennicott 1861) (Serpentes: Viperidae): implications for species boundaries.

The Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) is a highly venomous pitviper inhabiting the arid interior deserts, grasslands, and savannas of western North America. Currently two subspecies are recognized: the Northern Mohave Rattlesnake (C. s. scutulatus) ranging from southern California to the southern Central Mexican Plateau, and the Huamantla Rattlesnake (C. s. salvini) from the region of Tlaxcala, Veracruz, and Puebla in south-central Mexico. Although recent studies have demonstrated extensive geographic variation in venom composition and cryptic genetic diversity in this species, no modern studies have focused on geographic variation in morphology. Here we analyzed a series of qualitative, meristic, and morphometric traits from 347 specimens of C. scutulatus and show that this species is phenotypically cohesive without discrete subgroups, and that morphology follows a continuous cline in primarily color pattern and meristic traits across the major axis of its expansive distribution. Interpreted in the context of previously published molecular evidence, our morphological analyses suggest that multiple episodes of isolation and secondary contact among metapopulations during the Pleistocene were sufficient to produce distinctive genetic populations, which have since experienced gene flow to produce clinal variation in phenotypes without discrete or diagnosable distinctions among these original populations. For taxonomic purposes, we recommend that C. scutulatus be retained as a single species, although it is possible that C. s. salvini, which is morphologically the most distinctive population, could represent a peripheral isolate in the initial stages of speciation.

Evidence for divergent patterns of local selection driving venom variation in Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus).

Snake venoms represent an enriched system for investigating the evolutionary processes that lead to complex and dynamic trophic adaptations. It has long been hypothesized that natural selection may drive geographic variation in venom composition, yet previous studies have lacked the population genetic context to examine these patterns. We leverage range-wide sampling of Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus) and use a combination of venom, morphological, phylogenetic, population genetic, and environmental data to characterize the striking dichotomy of neurotoxic (Type A) and hemorrhagic (Type B) venoms throughout the range of this species. We find that three of the four previously identified major lineages within C. scutulatus possess a combination of Type A, Type B, and a 'mixed' Type A + B venom phenotypes, and that fixation of the two main venom phenotypes occurs on a more fine geographic scale than previously appreciated. We also find that Type A + B individuals occur in regions of inferred introgression, and that this mixed phenotype is comparatively rare. Our results support strong directional local selection leading to fixation of alternative venom phenotypes on a fine geographic scale, and are inconsistent with balancing selection to maintain both phenotypes within a single population. Our comparisons to biotic and abiotic factors further indicate that venom phenotype correlates with fang morphology and climatic variables. We hypothesize that links to fang morphology may be indicative of co-evolution of venom and other trophic adaptations, and that climatic variables may be linked to prey distributions and/or physiology, which in turn impose selection pressures on snake venoms.

Cryptic genetic diversity, population structure, and gene flow in the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus).

The Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) inhabits deserts and arid grasslands of the western United States and Mexico. Despite considerable interest in its highly toxic venom and the recognition of two subspecies, no molecular studies have characterized range-wide genetic diversity and population structure or tested species limits within C. scutulatus. We used mitochondrial DNA and thousands of nuclear loci from double-digest restriction site associated DNA sequencing to infer population genetic structure throughout the range of C. scutulatus, and to evaluate divergence times and gene flow between populations. We find strong support for several divergent mitochondrial and nuclear clades of C. scutulatus, including splits coincident with two major phylogeographic barriers: the Continental Divide and the elevational increase associated with the Central Mexican Plateau. We apply Bayesian clustering, phylogenetic inference, and coalescent-based species delimitation to our nuclear genetic data to test hypotheses of population structure. We also performed demographic analyses to test hypotheses relating to population divergence and gene flow. Collectively, our results support the existence of four distinct lineages within C. scutulatus, and genetically defined populations do not correspond with currently recognized subspecies ranges. Finally, we use approximate Bayesian computation to test hypotheses of divergence among multiple rattlesnake species groups distributed across the Continental Divide, and find evidence for co-divergence at this boundary during the mid-Pleistocene.

Squeezing water from a stone: high-throughput sequencing from a 145-year old holotype resolves (barely) a cryptic species problem in flying lizards.

We used Massively Parallel High-Throughput Sequencing to obtain genetic data from a 145-year old holotype specimen of the flying lizard, Draco cristatellus. Obtaining genetic data from this holotype was necessary to resolve an otherwise intractable taxonomic problem involving the status of this species relative to closely related sympatric Draco species that cannot otherwise be distinguished from one another on the basis of museum specimens. Initial analyses suggested that the DNA present in the holotype sample was so degraded as to be unusable for sequencing. However, we used a specialized extraction procedure developed for highly degraded ancient DNA samples and MiSeq shotgun sequencing to obtain just enough low-coverage mitochondrial DNA (721 base pairs) to conclusively resolve the species status of the holotype as well as a second known specimen of this species. The holotype was prepared before the advent of formalin-fixation and therefore was most likely originally fixed with ethanol and never exposed to formalin. Whereas conventional wisdom suggests that formalin-fixed samples should be the most challenging for DNA sequencing, we propose that evaporation during long-term alcohol storage and consequent water-exposure may subject older ethanol-fixed museum specimens to hydrolytic damage. If so, this may pose an even greater challenge for sequencing efforts involving historical samples.

Rapid divergence of mussel populations despite incomplete barriers to dispersal.

Striking genetic structure among marine populations at small spatial scales is becoming evident with extensive molecular studies. Such observations suggest isolation at small scales may play an important role in forming patterns of genetic diversity within species. Isolation-by-distance, isolation-by-environment and historical priority effects are umbrella terms for a suite of processes that underlie genetic structure, but their relative importance at different spatial and temporal scales remains elusive. Here, we use marine lakes in Indonesia to assess genetic structure and assess the relative roles of the processes in shaping genetic differentiation in populations of a bivalve mussel (Brachidontes sp.). Marine lakes are landlocked waterbodies of similar age (6,000-10,000 years), but with heterogeneous environments and varying degrees of connection to the sea. Using a population genomic approach (double-digest restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing), we show strong genetic structuring across populations (range FST : 0.07-0.24) and find limited gene flow through admixture plots. At large spatial scales (>1,400 km), a clear isolation-by-distance pattern was detected. At smaller spatial scales (<200 km), this pattern is maintained, but accompanied by an association of genetic divergence with degree of connection. We hypothesize that (incomplete) dispersal barriers can cause initial isolation, allowing priority effects to give the numerical advantage necessary to initiate strong genetic structure. Priority effects may be strengthened by local adaptation, which the data may corroborate by showing a high correlation between mussel genotypes and temperature. Our study indicates an often-neglected role of (evolution-mediated) priority effects in shaping population divergence.

An evaluation of transcriptome-based exon capture for frog phylogenomics across multiple scales of divergence (Class: Amphibia, Order: Anura).

Custom sequence capture experiments are becoming an efficient approach for gathering large sets of orthologous markers in nonmodel organisms. Transcriptome-based exon capture utilizes transcript sequences to design capture probes, typically using a reference genome to identify intron-exon boundaries to exclude shorter exons (<200 bp). Here, we test directly using transcript sequences for probe design, which are often composed of multiple exons of varying lengths. Using 1260 orthologous transcripts, we conducted sequence captures across multiple phylogenetic scales for frogs, including outgroups ~100 Myr divergent from the ingroup. We recovered a large phylogenomic data set consisting of sequence alignments for 1047 of the 1260 transcriptome-based loci (~561 000 bp) and a large quantity of highly variable regions flanking the exons in transcripts (~70 000 bp), the latter improving substantially by only including ingroup species (~797 000 bp). We recovered both shorter (<100 bp) and longer exons (>200 bp), with no major reduction in coverage towards the ends of exons. We observed significant differences in the performance of blocking oligos for target enrichment and nontarget depletion during captures, and differences in PCR duplication rates resulting from the number of individuals pooled for capture reactions. We explicitly tested the effects of phylogenetic distance on capture sensitivity, specificity, and missing data, and provide a baseline estimate of expectations for these metrics based on a priori knowledge of nuclear pairwise differences among samples. We provide recommendations for transcriptome-based exon capture design based on our results, cost estimates and offer multiple pipelines for data assembly and analysis.

Sequence capture using PCR-generated probes: a cost-effective method of targeted high-throughput sequencing for nonmodel organisms.

Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing library preparation and subgenomic enrichment methods have opened new avenues for population genetics and phylogenetics of nonmodel organisms. To multiplex large numbers of indexed samples while sequencing predominantly orthologous, targeted regions of the genome, we propose modifications to an existing, in-solution capture that utilizes PCR products as target probes to enrich library pools for the genomic subset of interest. The sequence capture using PCR-generated probes (SCPP) protocol requires no specialized equipment, is highly flexible and significantly reduces experimental costs for projects where a modest scale of genetic data is optimal (25-100 genomic loci). Our alterations enable application of this method across a wider phylogenetic range of taxa and result in higher capture efficiencies and coverage at each locus. Efficient and consistent capture over multiple SCPP experiments and at various phylogenetic distances is demonstrated, extending the utility of this method to both phylogeographic and phylogenomic studies.

Exploring the radiation of a diverse reef fish family: phylogenetics of the damselfishes (Pomacentridae), with new classifications based on molecular analyses of all genera.

The damselfishes (Perciformes, Pomacentridae) are an important family of marine reef fishes that occupy a range of ecological positions in the world's oceans. In order to determine the evolutionary pattern of their radiation, we used multiple methods to examine molecular data from 104 species representing all extant genera. The analysis of 4291 DNA nucleotides (1281bp were parsimony informative) from three nuclear genes (rag-1, rag-2 and bmp-4) and three mitochondrial genes (12s, 16s and nd3), produced well-resolved phylogenies with strong evidence for a monophyletic Pomacentridae, and support for five major damselfish clades. We found that the monotypic subfamily Lepidozyginae evolved early in the pomacentrid radiation. The placement of the genus Altrichthys indicates that brood care has evolved at least twice among the damselfishes. The subfamilies Chrominae and Pomacentrinae, and the genera Abudefduf, Chromis, Chrysiptera, Plectroglyphidodon, and Stegastes, were always found to be polyphyletic, and monophyly was rejected for the genus Amphiprion by almost every analysis. All phylogenetic studies of the Pomacentridae have indicated that their taxonomy is in need of revision at multiple levels. We provide a new classification scheme wherein each subfamily is now monophyletic, and this reorganization is consistent with all previous molecular studies of the damselfishes. The Chrominae are restricted to the genera Chromis and Dascyllus; the Pomacentrinae now represent a lineage of 16 genera that constitute a major, and relatively recent, radiation of coral reef fishes throughout the Indo-West Pacific; we erect the new subfamlies Abudefdufinae and Stegastinae; we relegate the anemonefishes (the Amphiprioninae sensu Allen) to the tribe Amphiprionini within the Pomacentrinae, and synonomize the genus Azurina with Chromis.

Phylogenetic relationships and the evolution of regulatory gene sequences in the parrotfishes.

Regulatory genes control the expression of other genes and are key components of developmental processes such as segmentation and embryonic construction of the skull in vertebrates. Here we examine the variability and evolution of three vertebrate regulatory genes, addressing issues of their utility for phylogenetics and comparing the rates of genetic change seen in regulatory loci to the rates seen in other genes in the parrotfishes. The parrotfishes are a diverse group of colorful fishes from coral reefs and seagrasses worldwide and have been placed phylogenetically within the family Labridae. We tested phylogenetic hypotheses among the parrotfishes, with a focus on the genera Chlorurus and Scarus, by analyzing eight gene fragments for 42 parrotfishes and eight outgroup species. We sequenced mitochondrial 12s rRNA (967 bp), 16s rRNA (577 bp), and cytochrome b (477 bp). From the nuclear genome, we sequenced part of the protein-coding genes rag2 (715 bp), tmo4c4 (485 bp), and the developmental regulatory genes otx1 (672 bp), bmp4 (488bp), and dlx2 (522 bp). Bayesian, likelihood, and parsimony analyses of the resulting 4903 bp of DNA sequence produced similar topologies that confirm the monophyly of the scarines and provide a phylogeny at the species level for portions of the genera Scarus and Chlorurus. Four major clades of Scarus were recovered, with three distributed in the Indo-Pacific and one containing Caribbean/Atlantic taxa. Molecular rates suggest a Miocene origin of the parrotfishes (22 mya) and a recent divergence of species within Scarus and Chlorurus, within the past 5 million years. Developmentally important genes made a significant contribution to phylogenetic structure, and rates of genetic evolution were high in bmp4, similar to other coding nuclear genes, but low in otx1 and the dlx2 exons. Synonymous and non-synonymous substitution patterns in developmental regulatory genes support the hypothesis of stabilizing selection during the history of these genes, with several phylogenetic regions of accelerated non-synonymous change detected in the phylogeny.

Local phylogenetic divergence and global evolutionary convergence of skull function in reef fishes of the family Labridae.

The Labridae is one of the most structurally and functionally diversified fish families on coral and rocky reefs around the world, providing a compelling system for examination of evolutionary patterns of functional change. Labrid fishes have evolved a diverse array of skull forms for feeding on prey ranging from molluscs, crustaceans, plankton, detritus, algae, coral and other fishes. The species richness and diversity of feeding ecology in the Labridae make this group a marine analogue to the cichlid fishes. Despite the importance of labrids to coastal reef ecology, we lack evolutionary analysis of feeding biomechanics among labrids. Here, we combine a molecular phylogeny of the Labridae with the biomechanics of skull function to reveal a broad pattern of repeated convergence in labrid feeding systems. Mechanically fast jaw systems have evolved independently at least 14 times from ancestors with forceful jaws. A repeated phylogenetic pattern of functional divergence in local regions of the labrid tree produces an emergent family-wide pattern of global convergence in jaw function. Divergence of close relatives, convergence among higher clades and several unusual 'breakthroughs' in skull function characterize the evolution of functional complexity in one of the most diverse groups of reef fishes.

Polymorphisms in the MLL breakpoint cluster region (BCR).

The MLL gene is involved in many chromosomal translocations leading to both acute myeloid and lymphoid leukemia. Some patients treated for primary malignancies with chemotherapeutic agents that inhibit DNA topoisomerase II (topo II) develop treatment-related leukemia (t-AML) caused by MLL gene rearrangement. Whether these patients are unusually susceptible to anti-topo II drugs, or whether this is a random adverse event is unknown. To discover genetic polymorphisms that may predispose patients to t-AML development, we sequenced the 8.3-kb MLL breakpoint cluster region (BCR) from 22 patients who had been treated with topo II inhibitors and who developed t-AML and from 37 patients who did not, and from eight infants and 20 normal individuals. Four polymorphic sites within Alu repetitive elements were identified; three affected the length of poly-A tracts and one altered the size of a trinucleotide repeat. The three poly-A tract polymorphisms occurred with equal frequency in leukemic patients and controls and hence are not predictors of risk. The trinucleotide GAA repeat has three alleles: (GAA)4, (GAA)5, and (GAA)6. The (GAA)6 allele is very rare. The adult t-AML patients are almost exclusively (GAA)4/5 heterozygotes (83%), whereas the normal population is only 55% (GAA)4/5 heterozygotic and is represented equally by (GAA)4 and (GAA)5 homozygotes (20% each). Only certain trends could be established because of the small sample size of these leukemic groups. Whereas adult t-AML patients are more likely to be (GAA)4/5 heterozygotes, this is not statistically significant, and this polymorphism within the MLL BCR has only a suggestive association with t-AML development.