Remineralized bone matrix as a scaffold for bone tissue engineering.

There is a need for improved biomaterials for use in treating non-healing bone defects. A number of natural and synthetic biomaterials have been used for the regeneration of bone tissue with mixed results. One approach is to modify native tissue via decellularization or other treatment for use as natural scaffolding for tissue repair. In this study, our goal was to improve on our previously published alternating solution immersion (ASI) method to fabricate a robust, biocompatible, and mechanically competent biomaterial from natural demineralized bone matrix (DBM). The improved method includes an antigen removal (AR) treatment step which improves mineralization and stiffness while removing unwanted proteins. The chemistry of the mineral in the remineralized bone matrix (RBM) was consistent with dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (brushite), a material used clinically in bone healing applications. Mass spectrometry identified proteins removed from the matrix with AR treatment to include α-2 HS-glycoprotein and osteopontin, noncollagenous proteins (NCPs) and known inhibitors of biomineralization. Additionally, the RBM supported the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) in vitro as well or better than other widely used biomaterials including DBM and PLG scaffolds. DNA content increased more than 10-fold on RBM compared to DBM and PLG; likewise, osteogenic gene expression was significantly increased after 1 and 2 weeks. We demonstrated that ASI remineralization has the capacity to fabricate mechanically stiff and biocompatible RBM, a suitable biomaterial for cell culture applications.

Remineralization of demineralized bone matrix (DBM) via alternating solution immersion (ASI).

In order to achieve successful clinical outcomes, biomaterials used for bone grafts must possess a number of traits including biocompatibility and osteoconductivity. These materials must also demonstrate appropriate mechanical stability to withstand handling as well as support potentially significant stresses at the implant site. Synthetic and natural polymer scaffolds used for bone tissue engineering (BTE) often lack necessary mechanical properties. Our goal was to internally mineralize natural collagenous matrix, thereby increasing mechanical properties of the material to useful levels. Published methods for intrafibrillar collagen mineralization were applied to clinically relevant-sized constructs but did not successfully deposit mineral in the interior of the constructs. To address this limitation, we developed a new technique for the remineralization of demineralized bone matrix (DBM) based on alternating solution immersion, or ASI. Mineral was removed from equine bone specimens, leaving behind a demineralized bone matrix (DBM). This matrix provides a framework for the nucleation and growth of a replacement mineral phase. Plain film radiography and microcomputed tomography (microCT) indicated accumulation of mineral within the DBM, and mechanical testing (3 point bending and compression) revealed a significant increase in stiffness between the DBM and the remineralized bone matrix (RBM). We believe this remineralization process will be useful in the preparation of stiff and strong allografts for clinical application.

Cell-derived matrix coatings for polymeric scaffolds.

Cells in culture deposit a complex extracellular matrix that remains intact following decellularization and possesses the capacity to modulate cell phenotype. The direct application of such decellularized matrices (DMs) to 3D substrates is problematic, as transport issues influence the homogeneous deposition, decellularization, and modification of DM surface coatings. In an attempt to address this shortcoming, we hypothesized that DMs deposited by human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) could be transferred to the surface of polymeric scaffolds while maintaining their capacity to direct cell fate. The ability of the transferred DM (tDM)-coated scaffolds to enhance the osteogenic differentiation of undifferentiated and osteogenically induced MSCs under osteogenic conditions in vitro was confirmed. tDM-coated scaffolds increased MSC expression of osteogenic marker genes (BGLAP, IBSP) and intracellular alkaline phosphatase production. In addition, undifferentiated MSCs deposited significantly more calcium when seeded onto tDM-coated scaffolds compared with control scaffolds. MSC-seeded tDM-coated scaffolds subcutaneously implanted in nude rats displayed significantly higher blood vessel density after 2 weeks compared with cells on uncoated scaffolds, but we did not observe significant differences in mineral deposition after 8 weeks. These data demonstrate that DM-coatings produced in 2D culture can be successfully transferred to 3D substrates and retain their capacity to modulate cell phenotype.

Damage initiation sites in osteoporotic and normal human cancellous bone.

Using a finite element (FE) method called biomechanical stereology, Wang et al. previously reported increased microcrack formation and propagation in bone samples from patients with a history of osteoporotic fracture as compared to normal subjects. In this study, we re-analyzed the data from Wang's report to determine the microscopic differences between bone tissue from osteoporotic patients and normal subjects that caused these different patterns of bone tissue damage between the groups. The morphological features examined were the number of "voids" (or osteocyte lacunae) visible and the distance of the lacunae from the initiation of the microcracks. We found that bone samples from patients with a history of osteoporotic fracture contained significantly more lacunae than normal control specimens. We also found a significant correlation (r² = 0.483, p = 0.001) between the number of lacunae visible in the image and the number of microcracks formed. These results help to explain the differences in total microcrack number between the osteoporotic and normal subjects reported in our previous work.