CSF tau/Abeta42 ratio for increased risk of mild cognitive impairment: a follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: Processes of Alzheimer disease (AD) likely begin years prior to the onset of cognitive impairment (latent AD), progress though a prodromal phase of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and culminate in dementia. While many studies have evaluated CSF tau and Abeta(42) as biomarkers of the dementia or prodromal stages of AD, we are unaware of any study to evaluate these potential CSF biomarkers of latent AD. METHODS: We determined the ratio of CSF tau/Abeta(42) (T/Abeta) using Luminex reagents in 129 control individuals that spanned from 21 to 100 years of age; for comparison we included patients with MCI (n = 12), probable AD (n = 21), or other neurodegenerative diseases (n = 12). RESULTS: We identified 16% of the control group with abnormally elevated CSF T/Abeta; all were 53 years or older. Using age-matched controls with normal CSF T/Abeta we showed that the high CSF T/Abeta subgroup of controls had significantly increased frequency of the epsilon4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene and significantly increased risk of conversion to MCI during follow-up of up to 42 months suggesting that they had latent AD at the time of lumbar puncture. CONCLUSIONS: These generally applicable methods establish cutoff values to identify control individuals at increased risk of conversion to mild cognitive impairment which may be useful to people weighing the risk-benefit ratio of new preventive therapeutics and to researchers striving to enrich clinical trial populations with people with latent Alzheimer disease.

Identification of functional regions of guanylate cyclase-activating protein 1 (GCAP1) using GCAP1/GCIP chimeras.

Guanylate cyclase-activating protein 1 (GCAP1) and guanylate cyclase-inhibitory protein (GCIP) are calmodulin-related Ca2+-binding proteins expressed in vertebrate photoreceptor cells. GCAP1 activates photoreceptor guanylate cyclase 1 (GC1) at low free [Ca2+] (<50 nM, in the light), but inhibits it at physiological high [Ca2+] (1 microM, in the dark). GCIP, a Ca2+-binding protein from frog retina, inhibits GC1 at approximately 1 microM [Ca2+], but is unable to stimulate cyclase at low [Ca2+]. In this study, we probed the interaction between GCAP1 and GC1 by producing GCAP1/GCIP chimeras and tested their capability to stimulate GC1. We prepared eight pairs of constructs in which the N-terminal portions of GCIP and GCAP1 were successively replaced by corresponding domains of GCAP1, and GCIP, respectively. The expressed proteins were purified and tested for stimulation of GC1 at 50 nM [Ca2+], and their ability to competitively inhibit GC1 stimulation by a Ca2+-insensitive GCAP1 mutant, GCAP1-tm, at high [Ca2+]. While all GCAP1/GCIP chimeras competitively inhibited GC1 stimulation at high [Ca2+] by GCAP1-tm, several of the GCIP/GCAP1 chimeras had no effect. A chimera consisting of residues 1-20 of GCIP and 21-205 of GCAP1 had no effect on GC1 at low [Ca2+], suggesting that the N-terminal region MGNIMDGKSVEELSSTECHQ, which has no sequence similarity to GCIP, is among the key components necessary for GC1 stimulation. A GCAP1/GCIP chimera consisting of residues 1-43 (including nonfunctional EF1) of GCAP1 and residues 56-206 of GCIP stimulated GC1 at low [Ca2+] and inhibited GC1 at high [Ca2+], suggesting that the essential components required to transform an inhibitory to an activating protein are contained within the N-terminal region of GCAP1 (residues 1-43).

Role of guanylate cyclase-activating proteins (GCAPs) in setting the flash sensitivity of rod photoreceptors.

The retina's photoreceptor cells adjust their sensitivity to allow photons to be transduced over a wide range of light intensities. One mechanism thought to participate in sensitivity adjustments is Ca(2+) regulation of guanylate cyclase (GC) by guanylate cyclase-activating proteins (GCAPs). We evaluated the contribution of GCAPs to sensitivity regulation in rods by disrupting their expression in transgenic mice. The GC activity from GCAPs-/- retinas showed no Ca(2+) dependence, indicating that Ca(2+) regulation of GCs had indeed been abolished. Flash responses from dark-adapted GCAPs-/- rods were larger and slower than responses from wild-type rods. In addition, the incremental flash sensitivity of GCAPs-/- rods failed to be maintained at wild-type levels in bright steady light. GCAP2 expressed in GCAPs-/- rods restored maximal light-induced GC activity but did not restore normal flash response kinetics. We conclude that GCAPs strongly regulate GC activity in mouse rods, decreasing the flash sensitivity in darkness and increasing the incremental flash sensitivity in bright steady light, thereby extending the rod's operating range.

Calcium-sensitive regions of GCAP1 as observed by chemical modifications, fluorescence, and EPR spectroscopies.

Guanylyl cyclase-activating proteins are EF-hand Ca(2+)-binding proteins that belong to the calmodulin superfamily. They are involved in the regulation of photoreceptor membrane-associated guanylyl cyclases that produce cGMP, a second messenger of vertebrate vision. Here, we investigated changes in GCAP1 structure using mutagenesis, chemical modifications, and spectroscopic methods. Two Cys residues of GCAP1 situated in spatially distinct regions of the N-terminal domain (positions 18 and 29) and two Cys residues located within the C-terminal lobe (positions 106 and 125) were employed to detect conformational changes upon Ca(2+) binding. GCAP1 mutants with only a single Cys residue at each of these positions, modified with N,N'-dimethyl-N-(iodoacetyl)-N'-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)ethylenediamine, an environmentally sensitive fluorophore, and with (1-oxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrroline-3-methyl)methanethiosulfonate, a spin label reagent, were studied using fluorescence and EPR spectroscopy, respectively. Only minor structural changes around Cys(18), Cys(29), Cys(106), and Cys(125) were observed as a function of Ca(2+) concentration. No Ca(2+)-dependent oligomerization of GCAP1 was observed at physiologically relevant Ca(2+) concentrations, in contrast to the observation reported by others for GCAP2. Based on these results and previous studies, we propose a photoreceptor activation model that assumes changes within the flexible central helix upon Ca(2+) dissociation, causing relative reorientation of two structural domains containing a pair of EF-hand motifs and thus switching its partner, guanylyl cyclase, from an inactive (or low activity) to an active conformation.

Ca(2+)-binding proteins in the retina: from discovery to etiology of human disease(1).

Examination of the role of Ca(2+)-binding proteins (CaBPs) in mammalian retinal neurons has yielded new insights into the function of these proteins in normal and pathological states. In the last 8 years, studies on guanylate cyclase (GC) regulation by three GC-activating proteins (GCAP1-3) led to several breakthroughs, among them the recent biochemical analysis of GCAP1(Y99) mutants associated with autosomal dominant cone dystrophy. Perturbation of Ca(2+) homeostasis controlled by mutant GCAP1 in photoreceptor cells may result ultimately in degeneration of these cells. Here, detailed analysis of biochemical properties of GCAP1(P50L), which causes a milder form of autosomal dominant cone dystrophy than constitutive active Y99C mutation, showed that the P50L mutation resulted in a decrease of Ca(2+)-binding, without changes in the GC activity profile of the mutant GCAP1. In contrast to this biochemically well-defined regulatory mechanism that involves GCAPs, understanding of other processes in the retina that are regulated by Ca(2+) is at a rudimentary stage. Recently, we have identified five homologous genes encoding CaBPs that are expressed in the mammalian retina. Several members of this subfamily are also present in other tissues. In contrast to GCAPs, the function of this subfamily of calmodulin (CaM)-like CaBPs is poorly understood. CaBPs are closely related to CaM and in biochemical assays CaBPs substitute for CaM in stimulation of CaM-dependent kinase II, and calcineurin, a protein phosphatase. These results suggest that CaM-like CaBPs have evolved into diverse subfamilies that control fundamental processes in cells where they are expressed.

Isomerization of all-trans-retinol to cis-retinols in bovine retinal pigment epithelial cells: dependence on the specificity of retinoid-binding proteins.

In the retinal rod and cone photoreceptors, light photoactivates rhodopsin or cone visual pigments by converting 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal, the process that ultimately results in phototransduction and visual sensation. The production of 11-cis-retinal in adjacent retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells is a fundamental process that allows regeneration of the vertebrate visual system. Here, we present evidence that all-trans-retinol is unstable in the presence of H(+) and rearranges to anhydroretinol through a carbocation intermediate, which can be trapped by alcohols to form retro-retinyl ethers. This ability of all-trans-retinol to form a carbocation could be relevant for isomerization. The calculated activation energy of isomerization of all-trans-retinyl carbocation to the 11-cis-isomer was only approximately 18 kcal/mol, as compared to approximately 36 kcal/mol for all-trans-retinol. This activation energy is similar to approximately 17 kcal/mol obtained experimentally for the isomerization reaction in RPE microsomes. Mass spectrometric (MS) analysis of isotopically labeled retinoids showed that isomerization proceeds via alkyl cleavage mechanism, but the product of isomerization depended on the specificity of the retinoid-binding protein(s) as evidenced by the production of 13-cis-retinol in the presence of cellular retinoid-binding protein (CRBP). To test the influence of an electron-withdrawing group on the polyene chain, which would inhibit carbocation formation, 11-fluoro-all-trans-retinol was used in the isomerization assay and was shown to be inactive. Together, these results strengthen the idea that the isomerization reaction is driven by mass action and may occur via carbocation intermediate.

Five members of a novel Ca(2+)-binding protein (CABP) subfamily with similarity to calmodulin.

Five members of a novel Ca(2+)-binding protein subfamily (CaBP), with 46-58% sequence similarity to calmodulin (CaM), were identified in the vertebrate retina. Important differences between these Ca(2+)-binding proteins and CaM include alterations within their second EF-hand loop that render these motifs inactive in Ca(2+) coordination and the fact that their central alpha-helixes are extended by one alpha-helical turn. CaBP1 and CaBP2 contain a consensus sequence for N-terminal myristoylation, similar to members of the recoverin subfamily and are fatty acid acylated in vitro. The patterns of expression differ for each of the various members. Expression of CaBP5, for example, is restricted to retinal rod and cone bipolar cells. In contrast, CaBP1 has a more widespread pattern of expression. In the brain, CaBP1 is found in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, and in the retina this protein is found in cone bipolar and amacrine cells. CaBP1 and CaBP2 are expressed as multiple, alternatively spliced variants, and in heterologous expression systems these forms show different patterns of subcellular localization. In reconstitution assays, CaBPs are able to substitute functionally for CaM. These data suggest that these novel CaBPs are an important component of Ca(2+)-mediated cellular signal transduction in the central nervous system where they may augment or substitute for CaM.

Conformational changes in guanylyl cyclase-activating protein 1 (GCAP1) and its tryptophan mutants as a function of calcium concentration.

Guanylyl cyclase-activating proteins (GCAPs are 23-kDa Ca2+-binding proteins belonging to the calmodulin superfamily. Ca2+-free GCAPs are responsible for activation of photoreceptor guanylyl cyclase during light adaptation. In this study, we characterized GCAP1 mutants in which three endogenous nonessential Trp residues were replaced by Phe residues, eliminating intrinsic fluorescence. Subsequently, hydrophobic amino acids adjacent to each of the three functional Ca2+-binding loops were replaced by reporter Trp residues. Using fluorescence spectroscopy and biochemical assays, we found that binding of Ca2+ to GCAP1 causes a major conformational change especially in the region around the EF3-hand motif. This transition of GCAP1 from an activator to an inhibitor of GC requires an activation energy Ea = 9.3 kcal/mol. When Tyr99 adjacent to the EF3-hand motif was replaced by Cys, a mutation linked to autosomal dominant cone dystrophy in humans, Cys99 is unable to stabilize the inactive GCAP1-Ca2+ complex. Stopped-flow kinetic measurements indicated that GCAP1 rapidly loses its bound Ca2+ (k-1 = 72 s-1 at 37 degrees C) and was estimated to associate with Ca2+ at a rate (k1 > 2 x 10(8) M-1 s-1) close to the diffusion limit. Thus, GCAP1 displays thermodynamic and kinetic properties that are compatible with its involvement early in the phototransduction response.

Identification of a guanylyl cyclase-activating protein-binding site within the catalytic domain of retinal guanylyl cyclase 1.

Regulation of cAMP and cGMP production is a fundamental step in a broad range of signal transduction systems, including phototransduction. To identify regions within photoreceptor guanylyl cyclase 1 (GC1) that interact with GC-activating proteins (GCAPs), we synthesized the intracellular fragment of GC1, residues 491-1110, as a set of 15 amino acid long, partially overlapping peptides on the surface of individual pins arranged in a microtiter plate format. This pin assay identified 8 peptides derived from different regions of the GC1 intracellular domain that bind GCAPs. Peptide variants containing these sequences were synthesized as free peptides and tested for their ability to inhibit GC1 stimulation by GCAPs. A free peptide,968GTFRMRHMPEVPVRIRIG, from the catalytic domain of GC1 was the strongest inhibitor of GCAP1/GCAP2-mediated activation. In native GC1, this polypeptide fragment is likely to form a loop between alpha-helix 3 and beta-strand 4. When this region in GC1 was replaced by the corresponding sequence of GCAP-insensitive GC type A, GCAPs did not stimulate the GC1 mutant. The corresponding loops in related adenylyl cyclase (AC) are involved in the activating and inhibiting interactions with Gs alpha and Gi alpha, respectively. Thus, despite interacting with different activating proteins, both AC and GC activity may be modulated through their respective regions within catalytic domains.

Molecular characterization of a third member of the guanylyl cyclase-activating protein subfamily.

The mammalian retina contains at least two guanylyl cyclases (GC1 and GC2) and two guanylyl cyclase-activating proteins (GCAP1 and GCAP2). Here we present evidence of the presence of a new photoreceptor-specific GCAP, termed GCAP3, which is closely related to GCAP1. The sequence similarity of GCAP3 with GCAP1 and GCAP2 is 57 and 49%, respectively. Recombinant GCAP3 and GCAP2 stimulate GC1 and GC2 in low [Ca2+]free and inhibit GCs when [Ca2+]free is elevated, unlike GCAP1, which only stimulates GC1. GCAP3 is encoded by a distinct gene present in other mammalian species but could not be detected by genomic Southern blotting in rodents, amphibians, and lower vertebrates. The intron/exon arrangement of the GCAP3 gene is identical to that of the other GCAP genes. While the GCAP1 and GCAP2 genes are arranged in a tail-to-tail array on chromosome 6p in human, the GCAP3 gene is located on 3q13.1, suggesting an ancestral gene duplication/translocation event. The identification of multiple Ca2+-binding proteins that interact with GC is suggestive of complex regulatory mechanisms for photoreceptor GC.

GCAP1 (Y99C) mutant is constitutively active in autosomal dominant cone dystrophy.

GCAP1 stimulates photoreceptor guanylate cyclase (GC) in bleached vertebrate photoreceptors when [Ca2+]free decreases but is inactivated when cytoplasmic [Ca2+]free increase after dark adaptation. A Y99C mutation in GCAP1 has recently been found to be associated with autosomal dominant cone dystrophy. We show that the GCAP1(Y99C) mutant and native GCAP1 are highly effective in stimulation of photoreceptor GC1. The Ca2+ sensitivity of the mutant GCAP1, however, is markedly altered, causing reduced but persistent stimulation of GC1 under physiological dark conditions. These results are consistent with a model in which enhanced GC activity in dark-adapted cones leads to elevated levels of cytoplasmic cGMP. Alterations in physiological cGMP levels are also associated with other retinal degenerations, including Leber's congenital amaurosis.

Effect of colostrinin, an immunomodulatory proline-rich polypeptide from ovine colostrum, on sialidase and beta-galactosidase activities in murine thymocytes.

Colostrinin: a proline-rich polypeptide (PRP) from ovine colostrum and its nonapeptide active fragment (NP) induce maturation and differentiation of murine thymocytes, formation of helper cells from PNAhigh thymocytes and cytotoxic T cells from PNAlow thymocytes. These processes are accompanied by changes in expression of receptors for peanut agglutinin (PNA), PNAhigh thymocytes were transformed into PNAlow cells, and vice versa. It was shown, in various laboratories, that sialyltransferases are involved in the transformation of PNAhigh thymocytes into PNAlow cells. To find out whether the expression of receptors for PNA on murine thymocytes might also be influenced by other enzymes, we decided to study the effect of PRP and NP on sialidase and beta-galactosidase activities in these cells. The results obtained showed that the most of sialidase activity of murine thymocytes is present in the plasma membrane compartments. Both thymocyte subpopulations PNAhigh and PNAlow, showed similar sialidase activity, which was not affected either by PRP or NP. In contrast to sialidases, most of beta-galactosidase activity was present in the cytosol. PNAhigh, thymocytes showed a higher beta-galactosidase activity than PNAlow cells. Incubation of immature, PNAhigh, thymocytes with PRP or NP enhanced the beta-galactosidase activity in these cells. The presented results suggest that sialidases seem not to be involved in modulation of surface sialic acid content during murine thymocyte maturation. On the other hand, stimulation of activity of beta-galactosidase in PNAhigh, immature thymocytes by PRP and NP suggests that beta-galactosidase in murine thymocytes might be involved in transformation of PNAhigh into PNAlow cells.

High expression levels in cones of RGS9, the predominant GTPase accelerating protein of rods.

RGS9 is a member of the RGS family of GTPase accelerating proteins (GAPs) for heterotrimeric G proteins. We have explored its contribution to GTPase acceleration in mammalian rod and cone photoreceptors. When RGS9 was specifically removed from detergent extracts of rod outer segments by immunodepletion, the extracts lost nearly all of their GAP activity stimulatable by the inhibitory subunit of cGMP phosphodiesterase. Immunolocalization using monoclonal antibodies and confocal microscopy revealed that RGS9 is present in cones at significantly higher levels than in rods. Thus, RGS9 is the predominant source of GAP activity in rod outer segments, and RGS9 concentration emerges as a potentially important determinant of the faster response kinetics and lower sensitivity of mammalian cones, as compared with rods.

Changes in biological activity and folding of guanylate cyclase-activating protein 1 as a function of calcium.

Guanylate cyclase-activating protein 1 (GCAP1), a photoreceptor-specific Ca2+-binding protein, activates retinal guanylate cyclase 1 (GC1) during the recovery phase of phototransduction. In contrast to other Ca2+-binding proteins from the calmodulin superfamily, the Ca2+-free form of GCAP1 stimulates the effector enzyme. In this study, we analyzed the Ca2+-dependent changes in GCAP1 structure by limited proteolysis and mutagenesis in order to understand the mechanism of Ca2+-sensitive modulation of GC1 activity. The change from a Ca2+-bound to a Ca2+-free form of GCAP1 increased susceptibility of Ca2+-free GCAP1 to proteolysis by trypsin. Sequencing data revealed that in the Ca2+-bound form, only the N-terminus (myristoylated Gly2-Lys9) and C-terminus (171-205 fragment) of GCAP1 are removed by trypsin, while in the Ca2+-free form, GCAP1 is readily degraded to small fragments. Successive inactivation of each of the functional EF loops by site-directed mutagenesis showed that only EF3 and EF4 contribute to a Ca2+-dependent inactivation of GCAP1. GCAP1(E75D,E111D,E155D) mutant did not bind Ca2+ and stimulated GC1 in a [Ca2+]-independent manner. GCAP1 and GCAP2, but not S-100beta, a high [Ca2+]free activator of GC1, competed with the triple mutant at high [Ca2+]free, inhibiting GC1 with similar IC50's. These competition results are consistent with comparable affinities between GC1 and GCAPs. Our data suggest that GCAP1 undergoes major conformational changes during Ca2+ binding and that EF3 and EF4 motifs are responsible for changes in the GCAP1 structure that converts this protein from the activator to the inhibitor of GC1.

Interaction of IgG immunoglobulins with the guinea pig peritoneal macrophage Fc gamma receptors. Effect on the association of the receptors with the membrane skeleton and the cytoskeleton.

Binding of ligands to cell surface receptors may induce an interaction of the receptors with the cytoskeleton and/or membrane skeleton and decrease the solubility of the receptors in nonionic detergents. Cytochalasins, reagents affecting the structure of microfilaments, inhibit some cell functions induced by cross-linking of the receptors with ligands. Information concerning the function of the cytoskeleton in insolubilization of Fc gamma receptors (Fc gamma R) and in Fc gamma R-mediated signal transmission is rather limited. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of binding of homologous (guinea pig IgG1 and IgG2) and heterologous (rabbit IgG) immunoglobulins to guinea pig peritoneal macrophages on association of the macrophage Fc gamma receptors with the membrane skeleton and cytoskeleton. Cross-linking the macrophage Fc gamma receptors with immunoglobulin ligands induced insolubilization of the receptors in nonionic detergents suggesting association of the receptors with the membrane skeleton and the cytoskeleton. The ligands showed differential effects depending on a subclass and origin of the IgG used. The process of association of the Fc gamma receptors with the skeletons was fast and did not depend on temperature. Treatment of insoluble complexes with cytochalasin D, DNAse I or colchicine showed that actin microfilaments and microtubules play a role, at least partially, in insolubilization of the cross-linked macrophage Fc gamma receptors. Inhibition of insolubilization of the macrophage Fc gamma receptors by genistein indicated that tyrosine kinases are involved in the process of insolubilization. The association with the skeletons might be a part of the process of transduction of a signal which depended on the subclass and origin of IgG used and on the type of the Fc gamma receptor.

Guinea pig peritoneal macrophages. Differential effects of lectins on interaction with IgG immunoglobulins.

Guinea pig peritoneal macrophages have on their surface two receptors, one (Fc gamma 1/gamma 2 R) binding both guinea pig IgG1 and IgG2 and the second (Fc gamma 2R) binding only IgG2 immunoglobulins. We have previously shown that treatment of macrophages with neuraminidase or glycosylation inhibitors affects, in a different way, the binding of guinea pig IgG1, IgG2, and rabbit IgG. In the present study we have shown that pretreatment of guinea pig macrophages with lectins (Con A, WGA, and PNA) also has a different effect on the interaction of the cells with IgG. The lectins increased the binding of guinea pig IgG1, whereas rabbit IgG and guinea pig IgG2 were bound with a lower efficiency than in the case of control cells. Since sialic acid residues seem to modulate the activity of receptors and WGA interacts with sialylated oligosaccharides, we determined the IgG-binding characteristics for WGA-pretreated macrophages. We found that the increase in IgG1-binding ability was caused by an increase in the value of Kapp, but the number of IgG-binding sites was lower than in the control cells. In the case of rabbit IgG and guinea pig IgG2 we observed a decrease of both the value of Kapp and the number of IgG-binding sites. WGA did not interact directly with the Fc gamma receptor. The results of our former papers and the different effects of lectins of various specificities described in this paper suggest different positions of Fc gamma 1/gamma 2 and Fc gamma 2R in the plane of the macrophage membrane in respect to various membrane glycoconjugates.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

[Fc gamma receptors. Properties and participation in IgG binding and other biological processes]. / Receptory Fc gamma. Wlasciwosci i udzial w wiazaniu IgG i innych procesach biologicznych.

This review deals with the problem of transmission of the signal to cells via Fc gamma receptors. It was shown that in guinea pig macrophages changes in glycosylation of surface conjugates may affect the interaction by IgG immunoglobulins with the Fc gamma receptors. It also was found that binding of IgG caused an association of the Fc gamma receptors with the macrophage cytoskeleton. It was shown that the cytoskeleton was involved in induction of various biological functions in macrophages.