Effects of a 6-week on-court training program on the International Tennis Number (ITN) and a range of physical fitness characteristics in young tennis players.

The study aimed to (i) verify the effects of an on-court training program on the International Tennis Number (ITN) of young tennis players, as well as on a set of change of direction, linear sprint, and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) variables, and (ii) identify the main predictors of ITN. The sample consisted of 20 young male tennis players (mean age, 13.62 ± 0.23 years). Players underwent a 6-week on-court training program. The ITN and a number of change of direction variables (T-drill and repeated sprint ability), linear sprint (5 m, 10 m, and 20 m distances), and VO2max were measured. All variables improved significantly between the pre- and posttest (p < 0.001). The ITN (7.98 ± 6.06%, d = 0.82) and VO2max (6.77 ± 1.21%, d = 1.53) showed the greatest relative improvement with moderate to large effect sizes. The hierarchical linear model retained the time (estimate = 18.90, p < 0.001) and the T-drill (estimate = -64.77, p < 0.001) as significant predictors of the ITN. This indicates that the ITN improved significantly over the 6-week training program and that the T-drill test was the best and most significant predictor. Coaches and researchers are encouraged to monitor the ITN along with other physical fitness and technical variables. They can also use the T-drill test to understand the ITN of their players.

Does Playing Tennis with a Low-Compression Ball Effect Psychophysiological Responses and Match Characteristics in Recreational Adult Players?

This study aimed to compare the effects of playing tennis using low-compression balls (Lc-Balls) and standard balls (St-Balls) on psychophysiological responses and match characteristics among recreational adult tennis players. Participants (N = 24; age: 20.5 ± 1.3 years) were randomly matched to play two singles matches over three sets: one match was played with a Lc-Ball and one match was played with a St-Ball, resulting in twenty-four matches. Heart-rate responses and match characteristics were assessed during each match. Post-match measures included retrospective assessments of perceived exertion, ratings of enjoyment towards physical activity, and ratings of mental effort and mood. Results showed higher psychophysiological responses and more intensive play during the game when playing with the Lc-Ball (p ≤ 0.05, d values ranging from 0.24 to 1.93 [small to very large effect]). Further, playing with a Lc-Ball related to reporting a lower rating of perceived exertion (p = 0.00, d = 0.90 [moderate effect]) and greater physical enjoyment (p = 0.00, d = 1.73 [large effect]). Playing with the St-Ball was associated with higher unpleasant mood responses including depression, tension, anger, and fatigue. In conclusion, the results suggest that using the Lc-Ball may lead to better match performance with higher enjoyment in the tennis match-play in recreational adult tennis players.

Effects of Two Different Self-Paced Training Modalities on the Aerobic Fitness Levels, Psychophysiological Responses, and Antioxidant Status in Physically Active Young Adults.

This study aims to investigate the effects of self-paced high-intensity interval training (Sp-HIIT) vs. self-paced moderate-intensity continuous training (Sp-MICT) on aerobic fitness levels, psychophysiological responses, and antioxidant status to assess the relationship between aerobic fitness levels and antioxidant markers. Physically active young adults were randomised into Sp-HIIT and Sp-MICT groups. The intervention consisted of three weekly sessions during an eight-week period. Sp-HIIT consisted of performing two sets of 12-24 × 30 s high-intensity runs ≥ 85% HRmax followed by 30 s rest periods, while Sp-MICT consisted of performing 24-48 min of continuous running at 60-75% HRmax. Pre- and post-intervention testing included a maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) assessment during a 30-15 intermittent fitness test (30-15 IFT), as well as resting blood samples, which were analysed for oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde (MDA)) and activity of intracellular antioxidant enzymes (catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG)). The Sp-HIIT group showed a greater improvement in velocity of 30-15 IFT, VO2max, and MDA responses. Furthermore, the Sp-HIIT group demonstrated higher psychophysiological responses than the Sp-MICT group, except for anger responses. In conclusion, these results suggest that Sp-HIIT has a higher level of beneficial exercise-induced effects in physiological responses with greater perceived exertion in physically active young adults.

Comparative Study of the Long-Term Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health and Nutritional Practices Among International Elite and Sub-Elite Athletes: A Sample of 1420 Participants from 14 Countries.

BACKGROUND: Although several studies have shown that the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown has had negative impacts on mental health and eating behaviors among the general population and athletes, few studies have examined the long-term effects on elite and sub-elite athletes. The present study aimed to investigate the long-term impact of COVID-19 lockdown on mental health and eating behaviors in elite versus sub-elite athletes two years into the pandemic. A cross-sectional comparative study was conducted between March and April 2022, involving athletes from 14 countries, using a convenient non-probabilistic and snowball sampling method. A total of 1420 athletes (24.5 ± 7.9 years old, 569 elites, 35% women, and 851 sub-elites, 45% women) completed an online survey-based questionnaire. The questionnaire included a sociodemographic survey, information about the COVID-19 pandemic, the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 Items (DASS-21) for mental health assessment, and the Rapid Eating Assessment for Participants (REAP-S) for assessing eating behavior. RESULTS: The results showed that compared to sub-elite athletes, elite athletes had lower scores on the DASS-21 (p = .001) and its subscales of depression (p = .003), anxiety (p = .007), and stress (p < .001), as well as a lower REAP-S score indicating lower diet quality (p = .013). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, two years into the pandemic, elite athletes were likelier to have better mental health profiles than sub-elite athletes but surprisingly had lower diet quality.

Effects of home confinement on physical activity, nutrition, and sleep quality during the COVID-19 outbreak in amateur and elite athletes.

Introduction: Despite the progress in the management of the pandemic caused by COVID-19, it is necessary to continue exploring and explaining how this situation affected the athlete population around the world to improve their circumstances and reduce the negative impact of changes in their lifestyle conditions that were necessitated due to the pandemic. The aim of this study was to analyze the moderating influence of physical activity (PA) and dietary habits on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic experience on sleep quality in elite and amateur athletes. Materials and methods: A total of 1,420 elite (40.1%) and amateur (59.9%) athletes (41% women; 59% men) from 14 different countries participated in a cross-sectional design study. Data were collected using a battery of questionnaires that identified sociodemographic data, sleep quality index, PA levels, dietary habits, and the athletes' perception of their experience during the COVID-19 pandemic. Means and standard deviations were calculated for each variable. The analysis of variances and the correlation between variables were carried out with non-parametric statistics. A simple moderation effect was calculated to analyze the interaction between PA or dietary habits on the perception of the COVID-19 experience effect on sleep quality in elite and amateur athletes. Results: The PA level of elite athletes was higher than amateur athletes during COVID-19 (p < 0.001). However, the PA level of both categories of athletes was lower during COVID-19 than pre-COVID-19 (p < 0.01). In addition, amateurs had a higher diet quality than elite athletes during the pandemic (p = 0.014). The perception of the COVID-19 experience as controllable was significantly higher (p = 0.020) among elite athletes. In addition, two moderating effects had significant interactions. For amateur athletes, the PA level moderated the effect of controllable COVID-19 experience on sleep quality [F (3,777) = 3.05; p = 0.028], while for elite athletes, the same effect was moderated by dietary habits [F (3,506) = 4.47, p = 0.004]. Conclusion: Elite athletes had different lifestyle behaviors compared to amateurs during the COVID-19 lockdown. Furthermore, the relevance of maintaining high levels of PA for amateurs and good quality dietary habits by elite athletes was noted by the moderating effect that both variables had on the influence of the controllable experience during the COVID-19 pandemic on sleep quality.

Agility Skills, Speed, Balance and CMJ Performance in Soccer: A Comparison of Players with and without a Hearing Impairment.

This study investigates the differences in agility, speed, jump and balance performance and shooting skills between elite hearing-impaired national team soccer players (HISP) and without-hearing-impairment elite soccer players (woHISP). Players were divided into two groups, the HISP group (n = 13; 23.5 ± 3.1 years) and the woHISP group (n = 16; 20.6 ± 1.4 years), and were tested in three sessions, seven apart, for metrics including anthropometrics, speed (10 m, 20 m and 30 m), countermovement jump (CMJ), agility (Illinois, 505, zigzag), T test (agility and shooting skills), and balance. The results showed that 30 m, 20 m and 10 m sprint scores, agility/ skills (sec), shooting skills (goals), zigzag, Illinois, and 505 agility skills, and countermovement jump scores were significantly lower among players with hearing impairments (p < 0.05). There were no significant T test differences between HISP and woHISP (p > 0.05). The HISP showed right posterolateral and posteromedial, and left posterolateral and posteromedial scores that were lower than the woHISP group (p < 0.05). Anterior scores were not significantly different between each leg (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the HISP group showed higher performance scores for speed (10 m, 20 m and 30 m), CMJ, agility (Illinois, 505, zigzag) and T test (sec and goals), but not balance. Hearing-impaired soccer players are determined by their skill, training, and strategy, not their hearing ability.

Effects of mental fatigue on the psychophysiological responses, kinematic profiles, and technical performance in different small-sided soccer games.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of mental fatigue (MF) on the psychophysiological responses, kinematic profiles, and technical performance of young soccer players in small-sided games (SSGs). Twenty-four young soccer players (age: 15.9 ± 1.0 years) played 2vs2, 3vs3, and 4vs4 SSGs consisting of four bouts (with two-minute passive rest periods between bouts) under two different playing conditions: MF+SSGs and SSGs. The heart rate, total distance covered, and technical performance of each player were monitored during all SSGs, and the rating of perceived exertion, visual analogue scale, and Rating Scale Mental Effort values were determined after each bout. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) and Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) were also determined at the end of each SSG. The results demonstrated that all MF+SSGs induced higher psychophysiological responses (p ≤ 0.05) than SSGs, except regarding the PACES responses. By contrast, the SSGs group covered a greater total distance (p ≤ 0.05) than the MF+SSGs group. During SSGs, the players' technical performances (in terms of lost balls and unsuccessful passes) were negatively affected after MF (p ≤ 0.05). The results of this study indicate that both PACES scores and mood responses were negatively affected after the MF intervention. Coaches could use the MF intervention before SSGs to improve soccer-specific technical and decision-making performances in young soccer players.

Can high-intensity interval training and small-sided games be effective for improving physical fitness after detraining? A parallel study design in youth male soccer players.

Background: The aim of this study was two-fold: (i) analyze the within-group physical fitness adaptations promoted by a detraining period (4 weeks) followed by an intervention period (4 weeks) using small-sided games (SSGs) or running-based high intensity interval training (HIIT); and (ii) analyze the between-group differences aiming to identify the effectiveness of each training intervention on the physical fitness of youth male soccer players. Methods: This study followed a randomized parallel study design. Forty male soccer players (age: 16.4 ± 0.5 years old) were assessed three times: (i) baseline; (ii) after 4 weeks of detraining; and (iii) after a retraining period of 4 weeks. After returning from detraining, players were randomized to an SSG-based training intervention (n = 20) or running-based HIIT (n = 20). Interventions lasted 4 weeks, with a training frequency of three sessions per week. At all timepoints, players were assessed by: (i) anthropometry (height, body mass, fat mass (FM)), countermovement jump (CMJ), standing broad jump (SBJ), triple hop jump (THJ), linear sprint test (5-, 10-, and 20-m), zig-zag test with (ZZwB) and without (ZZwoB) ball, three corner run test (3CRT), Y-balance test and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIRT). Mixed ANOVA (time * group) was conducted for testing interactions between the three timepoints of repeated measures and the two groups. Effect size (ES) for pairwise comparisons was calculated using Cohen's. Results: Between-group analysis revealed significantly smaller SBJ (t = -2.424, p = 0.020, d = -0.767 small ES) and THT (t = -4.353, p < 0.001, d = -1.376 large ES) in the SSG group after the retraining period. At the same time, SSG presented significantly greater FM after retraining compared to HIIT (t = 3.736, p < 0.001, d = 1.181 large ES). Additionally, SSG had significantly smaller values than HIIT in the ZZwB (t = -3.645, p < 0.001, d = -1.153 large ES), but greater times in the ZZwoB (t = 2.679, p = 0.011, d = 0.847 large ES) and 3CRT (t = 3.126, p = 0.003, d = 0.989 large ES). Conclusions: Although SSG and HIIT interventions improved physical fitness outcomes after a period of detraining, they were not able to effectively restore body composition, CMJ, 20-m sprint, ZZwB, and YYIRT compared with the baseline assessments (before detraining). Only HIIT was significantly effective for restoring SBJ, short linear sprin speed, and change-of-direction compared with baseline. HIIT was also significantly better than SSG in improving SBJ and ZZwoB. Although the small sample, the non determination of maturation status and the need to be cautious regarding generalization, HIIT appears to be more beneficial than SSG after a detraining period for recovery of body composition and physical fitness qualities in this specific context of youth soccer players.

Effects of Small-Sided Games Training versus High-Intensity Interval Training Approaches in Young Basketball Players.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the 6-week small-sided games training (SSGs) vs. high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on the psychophysiological and performance responses, and technical skills of young basketball players. Thirty-two male players (age: 14.5 ± 0.5 years of age) were randomly divided into SSGs group (n = 16) and HIIT group (n = 16) training methods thrice per week for 6 weeks. The players in the SSGs group performed two 5-8 min of 2 vs. 2 with 2 min rest periods, while the players in HIIT performed 12-18 min of runs at intensities (90 to 95%) related to the velocity obtained in the 30-15 intermittent fitness test (IFT). Pre-testing and post-testing sessions involved assessments of Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1, 30-15 intermittent fitness test, 5 and 30 m sprint times, vertical jump height, repeated sprint ability, defensive and offensive agility, and technical skills. The SSGs group demonstrated significantly higher agility-based technical responses in terms of the control dribbling and shooting skills (d = 1.71 vs. 0.20, d = 1.41 vs. 0.35, respectively) compared with the HIIT group. Conversely, the HIIT induced greater improvements in 30 m sprint times (d = 3.15 vs. 0.68). These findings provided that SSGs in youth basketball players may allow similar positive physical adaptations to HIIT, with an extra advantage of improving technical skills while improving enjoyability.

Effects of self-paced high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous training on the physical performance and psychophysiological responses in recreationally active young adults.

This study aimed to compare the effects of 8-week self-paced high-intensity interval training (HIIT) vs. self-paced moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on the physical performance and psychophysiological responses of young adults. Twenty-eight recreationally active young adults (age: 21.1 ± 1.6 years) were randomly assigned to either the self-paced HIIT (n = 14) or the MICT (n = 14) group training protocol. The HIIT consisted of two 12-24 x 30 seconds of high-intensity runs interspersed by 30 seconds of recovery. The MICT completed 24-48 minutes of continuous running. Before and after the 8-week interventions the following tests were completed: maximum oxygen consumption (V̇O2max) estimated from the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (YYIRTL-1), repeated sprint ability (RSA), 10-30-m sprint test, change of direction test (T-drill), countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ), and triple hop distance test (THD). Training rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES) were assessed during the training programme. The HIIT resulted in greater improvement in YYIRTL-1, V̇O2max, RSA and T-drill performances compared to the MICT. Furthermore, RPE and PACES values were higher in the HIIT than the MICT. This study suggested that self-paced HIIT may be a more effective training regime to improve aerobic fitness with greater physical enjoyment in recreationally active young adults.

Short-term effects of on-field combined core strength and small-sided games training on physical performance in young soccer players.

This study aimed to compare the effects of 6-weeks combined core strength and small-sided games training (SSGcore) vs. small-sided games (SSG) training on the physical performance of young soccer players. Thirty-eight amateur soccer players (age: 16.50 ± 0.51 years) were randomly assigned to either a SSGcore (n = 20) or a SSG group (n = 18). The SSGcore group performed upper and lower body core strength exercises combined with SSG including 2-, 3- and 4-a-sided soccer games third a week. The SSG group performed only the SSG periodization. Baseline and after the 6-week training period the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (YYIRTL-1), 5-20-m sprint test, countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), triple-hop distance (THD), zigzag agility with ball (ZAWB) and without ball (ZAWOB), three corner run test (TCRT) and Y-balance test. The SSGcore group demonstrated meaningful improvements in 20 m sprint time (SSGcore: -9.1%, d = 1.42; SSG: -4.4%, d = 0.76), CMJ (SSGcore: 11.4%, d = 2.67; SSG: -7.7%, d = 1.43), SJ (SSGcore: 12.0%, d = 2.14; SSG: 5.7%, d = 1.28), THD (SSGcore: 5.0%, d = 1.39; SSG: 2.7%, d = 0.52) and TCRT (SSGcore: -3.7%, d = 0.69; SSG: -1.9%, d = 0.38). Furthermore, the SSGcore group demonstrated meaningfully higher improvement responses in both leg balance score (d = ranging from 2.11 to 2.75) compared with SSG group. These results suggest that the inclusion of core strength training to a SSG periodization is greatly effective to improve speed and strength-based conditioning in young soccer players.

The Effects of Exercise Order on the Psychophysiological Responses, Physical and Technical Performances of Young Soccer Players: Combined Small-Sided Games and High-Intensity Interval Training.

This study aimed to compare the order effects of combined small-sided games (SSGs) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on the psychophysiological responses and physical and technical performances of young soccer players. Twenty-four soccer players (aged 14.63 ± 0.71 years) were randomly divided into SSGs + HIIT (n = 12) and HIIT + SSGs (n = 12) for 6 weeks. The SSGs consisted of two 4-16 min rounds of 2, 3, and four-a-side games with 2 min of passive resting, whereas the HIIT consisted of 6-10 min of high-intensity runs at varying intensities (from 90 to 100%). Pre-test and post-test elements included a 5-30 m sprint test, countermovement jump test, zigzag agility test with the ball and without the ball, repeated sprint ability test, speed dribbling ability test, three-corner run test, and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1. Both combined training interventions produced similar improvements in physical performance and technical responses (p ≥ 0.05, d values ranging from 0.40 to 1.10). However, the combined HIIT + SSGs training produced meaningfully lower perceived exertion (p = 0.00, d = 2.98) and greater physical enjoyment (p = 0.00, d = 4.28) compared with the SSGs + HIIT intervention. Furthermore, the SSGs + HIIT group showed a higher training load than those from the HIIT + SSGs group for all weeks (p ≤ 0.05, d values ranging from 1.36 to 2.05). The present study's results might be used by coaches and practitioners to design training programmes for youth soccer players.

Effect of Coach Encouragement on the Psychophysiological and Performance Responses of Young Tennis Players.

This study aimed to compare the effects of coach encouragement during the on-court tennis training drills (OTDs) on the psychophysiological and performance responses of young tennis players. Twenty-five young male tennis players (14.0 ± 0.3 years of age) performed six bouts of each of the four common OTDs; Star, Suicide, Box and Big X (30:60 s; 1:2 work to rest ratio). The heart rate (HR) and total distance covered were monitored using two portable multivariable integrated 10 Hz GPS monitoring devices during all OTDs, and the rating of perceived exertion (RPE-10) and short form Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) values were determined after each OTDs bout. The results demonstrated that OTDs with coach encouragement induced significantly higher psychophysiological and performance responses compared to OTDs without coach encouragement (p < 0.05). The results of this study confirm that coach encouragement improves the intensity, performance and physical enjoyment level during OTDs. These findings might inform training practices in youth tennis players in order to improve tennis performance.