Hydrogel Encapsulation of Genome-Engineered Stem Cells for Long-Term Self-Regulating Anti-Cytokine Therapy.

Biologic therapies have revolutionized treatment options for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) but their continuous administration at high doses may lead to adverse events. Thus, the development of improved drug delivery systems that can sense and respond commensurately to disease flares represents an unmet medical need. Toward this end, we generated induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) that express interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra, an inhibitor of IL-1) in a feedback-controlled manner driven by the macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 (Ccl2) promoter. Cells were seeded in agarose hydrogel constructs made from 3D printed molds that can be injected subcutaneously via a blunt needle, thus simplifying implantation of the constructs, and the translational potential. We demonstrated that the subcutaneously injected agarose hydrogels containing genome-edited Ccl2-IL1Ra iPSCs showed significant therapeutic efficacy in the K/BxN model of inflammatory arthritis, with nearly complete abolishment of disease severity in the front paws. These implants also exhibited improved implant longevity as compared to the previous studies using 3D woven scaffolds, which require surgical implantation. This minimally invasive cell-based drug delivery strategy may be adapted for the treatment of other autoimmune or chronic diseases, potentially accelerating translation to the clinic.

Side-chain modification of collagen-targeting peptide prevents dye aggregation for improved molecular imaging of arthritic joints.

Near-infrared (NIR) dye-peptide conjugates are widely used for tissue-targeted molecular fluorescence imaging of pathophysiologic conditions. However, the significant contribution of both dye and peptide to the net mass of these bioconjugates implies that small changes in either component could alter their photophysical and biological properties. Here, we synthesized and conjugated a type I collagen targeted peptide, RRANAALKAGELYKCILY, to either a hydrophobic (LS1000) or hydrophilic (LS1006) NIR fluorescent dye. Spectroscopic analysis revealed rapid self-assembly of both LS1000 and LS1006 in aqueous media to form stable dimeric/H aggregates, regardless of the free dye's solubility in water. We discovered that replacing the cysteine residue in LS1000 and LS1006 with acetamidomethyl cysteine to afford LS1001 and LS1107, respectively, disrupted the peptide's self-assembly and activated the previously quenched dye's fluorescence in aqueous conditions. These results highlight the dominant role of the octadecapeptide, but not the dye molecules, in controlling the photophysical properties of these conjugates by likely sequestering or extruding the hydrophobic or hydrophilic dyes, respectively. Application of the compounds for imaging collagen-rich tissue in an animal model of inflammatory arthritis showed enhanced uptake of all four conjugates, which retained high collagen-binding affinity, in inflamed joints. Moreover, LS1001 and LS1107 improved the arthritic joint-to-background contrast, suggesting that reduced aggregation enhanced the clearance of these compounds from non-target tissues. Our results highlight a peptide-driven strategy to alter the aggregation states of molecular probes in aqueous solutions, irrespective of the water-solubilizing properties of the dye molecules. The interplay between the monomeric and aggregated forms of the conjugates using simple thiol-modifiers lends the peptide-driven approach to diverse applications, including the effective imaging of inflammatory arthritis joints.

Safety Profile of Rapamycin Perfluorocarbon Nanoparticles for Preventing Cisplatin-Induced Kidney Injury.

Cancer treatment-induced toxicities may restrict maximal effective dosing for treatment and cancer survivors' quality of life. It is critical to develop novel strategies that mitigate treatment-induced toxicity without affecting the efficacy of anti-cancer therapies. Rapamycin is a macrolide with anti-cancer properties, but its clinical application has been hindered, partly by unfavorable bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and side effects. As a result, significant efforts have been undertaken to develop a variety of nano-delivery systems for the effective and safe administration of rapamycin. While the efficacy of nanostructures carrying rapamycin has been studied intensively, the pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and safety remain to be investigated. In this study, we demonstrate the potential for rapamycin perfluorocarbon (PFC) nanoparticles to mitigate cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury with a single preventative dose. Evaluations of pharmacokinetics and biodistribution suggest that the PFC nanoparticle delivery system improves rapamycin pharmacokinetics. The safety of rapamycin PFC nanoparticles was shown both in vitro and in vivo. After a single dose, no disturbance was observed in blood tests or cardiac functional evaluations. Repeated dosing of rapamycin PFC nanoparticles did not affect overall spleen T cell proliferation and responses to stimulation, although it significantly decreased the number of Foxp3+CD4+ T cells and NK1.1+ cells were observed.

Non-invasive monitoring of arthritis treatment response via targeting of tyrosine-phosphorylated annexin A2 in chondrocytes.

BACKGROUND: The development and optimization of therapies for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is currently hindered by a lack of methods for early non-invasive monitoring of treatment response. Annexin A2, an inflammation-associated protein whose presence and phosphorylation levels are upregulated in RA, represents a potential molecular target for tracking RA treatment response. METHODS: LS301, a near-infrared dye-peptide conjugate that selectively targets tyrosine 23-phosphorylated annexin A2 (pANXA2), was evaluated for its utility in monitoring disease progression, remission, and early response to drug treatment in mouse models of RA by fluorescence imaging. The intraarticular distribution and localization of LS301 relative to pANXA2 was determined by histological and immunohistochemical methods. RESULTS: In mouse models of spontaneous and serum transfer-induced inflammatory arthritis, intravenously administered LS301 showed selective accumulation in regions of joint pathology including paws, ankles, and knees with positive correlation between fluorescent signal and disease severity by clinical scoring. Whole-body near-infrared imaging with LS301 allowed tracking of spontaneous disease remission and the therapeutic response after dexamethasone treatment. Histological analysis showed preferential accumulation of LS301 within the chondrocytes and articular cartilage in arthritic mice, and colocalization was observed between LS301 and pANXA2 in the joint tissue. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that fluorescence imaging with LS301 can be used to monitor the progression, remission, and early response to drug treatment in mouse models of RA. Given the ease of detecting LS301 with portable optical imaging devices, the agent may become a useful early treatment response reporter for arthritis diagnosis and drug evaluation.

A genome-engineered bioartificial implant for autoregulated anticytokine drug delivery.

Biologic drug therapies are increasingly used for inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis but may cause significant adverse effects when delivered continuously at high doses. We used CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing of iPSCs to create a synthetic gene circuit that senses changing levels of endogenous inflammatory cytokines to trigger a proportional therapeutic response. Cells were engineered into cartilaginous constructs that showed rapid activation and recovery in response to inflammation in vitro or in vivo. In the murine K/BxN model of inflammatory arthritis, bioengineered implants significantly mitigated disease severity as measured by joint pain, structural damage, and systemic and local inflammation. Therapeutic implants completely prevented increased pain sensitivity and bone erosions, a feat not achievable by current clinically available disease-modifying drugs. Combination tissue engineering and synthetic biology promises a range of potential applications for treating chronic diseases via custom-designed cells that express therapeutic transgenes in response to dynamically changing biological signals.

Adipose tissue is a critical regulator of osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis (OA), the leading cause of pain and disability worldwide, disproportionally affects individuals with obesity. The mechanisms by which obesity leads to the onset and progression of OA are unclear due to the complex interactions among the metabolic, biomechanical, and inflammatory factors that accompany increased adiposity. We used a murine preclinical model of lipodystrophy (LD) to examine the direct contribution of adipose tissue to OA. Knee joints of LD mice were protected from spontaneous or posttraumatic OA, on either a chow or high-fat diet, despite similar body weight and the presence of systemic inflammation. These findings indicate that adipose tissue itself plays a critical role in the pathophysiology of OA. Susceptibility to posttraumatic OA was reintroduced into LD mice using implantation of a small adipose tissue depot derived from wild-type animals or mouse embryonic fibroblasts that undergo spontaneous adipogenesis, implicating paracrine signaling from fat, rather than body weight, as a mediator of joint degeneration.

Nanotherapy Targeting NF-κB Attenuates Acute Pain After Joint Injury.

Inflammation after joint injury leads to joint responses that result in eventual osteoarthritis development. Blockade of inflammation, by suppressing NF-κB expression, has been shown to reduce joint injury-induced chondrocyte apoptosis and reactive synovitis in vivo. Herein, we demonstrate that the suppression of NF-κB p65 expression also significantly mitigates the acute pain sensitivity induced by mechanical injury to the joint. These results suggest that early intervention with anti-NF-κB nanotherapy mitigates both structural and pain-related outcomes, which in turn may impact the progression of post-traumatic osteoarthritis.

Complement activation on neutrophils initiates endothelial adhesion and extravasation.

Neutrophils are essential to the pathogenesis of many inflammatory diseases. In the autoantibody-mediated K/BxN model of inflammatory arthritis, the alternative pathway (AP) of complement and Fc gamma receptors (FcγRs) are required for disease development while the classical pathway is dispensable. The reason for this differential requirement is unknown. We show that within minutes of K/BxN serum injection complement activation (CA) is detected on circulating neutrophils, as evidenced by cell surface C3 fragment deposition. CA requires the AP factor B and FcγRs but not C4, implying that engagement of FcγRs by autoantibody or immune complexes directly triggers AP C3 convertase assembly. The absence of C5 does not prevent CA on neutrophils but diminishes the upregulation of adhesion molecules. In vivo two-photon microscopy reveals that CA on neutrophils is critical for neutrophil extravasation and generation of C5a at the site of inflammation. C5a stimulates the release of neutrophil proteases, which contribute to the degradation of VE-cadherin, an adherens junction protein that regulates endothelial barrier integrity. C5a receptor antagonism blocks the extracellular release of neutrophil proteases, suppressing VE-cadherin degradation and neutrophil transendothelial migration in vivo. These results elucidate the AP-dependent intravascular neutrophil-endothelial interactions that initiate the inflammatory cascade in this disease model but may be generalizable to neutrophil extravasation in other inflammatory processes.

Anti-JNK2 peptide-siRNA nanostructures improve plaque endothelium and reduce thrombotic risk in atherosclerotic mice.

BACKGROUND: A direct and independent role of inflammation in atherothrombosis was recently highlighted by the Canakinumab Antiinflammatory Thrombosis Outcome Study (CANTOS) trial, showing the benefit of inhibiting signaling molecules, eg, interleukins. Accordingly, we sought to devise a flexible platform for preventing the inflammatory drivers at their source to preserve plaque endothelium and mitigate procoagulant risk. METHODS: p5RHH-siRNA nanoparticles were formulated through self-assembly processes. The therapeutic efficacy of p5RHH-JNK2 siRNA nanoparticles was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS: Because JNK2 is critical to macrophage uptake of oxidized lipids through scavenger receptors that engender expression of myriad inflammatory molecules, we designed an RNA-silencing approach based on peptide-siRNA nanoparticles (p5RHH-siRNA) that localize to atherosclerotic plaques exhibiting disrupted endothelial barriers to achieve control of JNK2 expression by macrophages. After seven doses of p5RHH-JNK2 siRNA nanoparticles over 3.5 weeks in ApoE-/- mice on a Western diet, both JNK2 mRNA and protein levels were significantly decreased by 26% (P=0.044) and 42% (P=0.042), respectively. Plaque-macrophage populations were markedly depleted and NFκB and STAT3-signaling pathways inhibited by 47% (P<0.001) and 46% (P=0.004), respectively. Endothelial barrier integrity was restored (2.6-fold reduced permeability to circulating 200 nm nanoparticles in vivo, P=0.003) and thrombotic risk attenuated (200% increased clotting times to carotid artery injury, P=0.02), despite blood-cholesterol levels persistently exceeding 1,000 mg/dL. No adaptive or innate immunoresponses toward the nanoparticles were observed, and blood tests after the completion of treatment confirmed the largely nontoxic nature of this approach. CONCLUSION: The ability to formulate these nanostructures rapidly and easily interchange or multiplex their oligonucleotide content represents a promising approach for controlling deleterious signaling events locally in advanced atherosclerosis.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Enhance Early Inflammatory Response in Sendai Virus-Induced Asthma Phenotype.

Paramyxoviral infection in childhood has been linked to a significant increased rate of asthma development. In mice, paramyxoviral infection with the mouse parainfluenza virus type I, Sendai virus (Sev), causes a limited bronchiolitis followed by persistent asthma traits. We have previously shown that the absence of cysteine protease dipeptidyl peptidase I (DPPI) dampened the acute lung inflammatory response and the subsequent asthma phenotype induced by Sev. Adoptive transfer of wild-type neutrophils into DPPI-deficient mice restored leukocyte influx, the acute cytokine response, and the subsequent mucous cell metaplasia that accompanied Sev-induced asthma phenotype. However, the exact mechanism by which DPPI-sufficient neutrophils promote asthma development following Sev infection is still unknown. We hypothesize that neutrophils recruited to the alveolar space following Sev infection elaborate neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that propagate the inflammatory cascade, culminating in the eventual asthma phenotype. Indeed, we found that Sev infection was associated with NET formation in the lung and release of cell-free DNA complexed to myeloperoxidase in the alveolar space and plasma that peaked on day 2 post infection. Absence of DPPI significantly attenuated Sev-induced NET formation in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, concomitant administration of DNase 1, which dismantled NETs, or inhibition of peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4), an essential mediator of NET formation, suppressed the early inflammatory responses to Sev infection. Lastly, NETs primed bone marrow-derived cells to release cytokines that can amplify the inflammatory cascade.

Suppression of NF-κB activity via nanoparticle-based siRNA delivery alters early cartilage responses to injury.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a major cause of disability and morbidity in the aging population. Joint injury leads to cartilage damage, a known determinant for subsequent development of posttraumatic OA, which accounts for 12% of all OA. Understanding the early molecular and cellular responses postinjury may provide targets for therapeutic interventions that limit articular degeneration. Using a murine model of controlled knee joint impact injury that allows the examination of cartilage responses to injury at specific time points, we show that intraarticular delivery of a peptidic nanoparticle complexed to NF-κB siRNA significantly reduces early chondrocyte apoptosis and reactive synovitis. Our data suggest that NF-κB siRNA nanotherapy maintains cartilage homeostasis by enhancing AMPK signaling while suppressing mTORC1 and Wnt/ß-catenin activity. These findings delineate an extensive crosstalk between NF-κB and signaling pathways that govern cartilage responses postinjury and suggest that delivery of NF-κB siRNA nanotherapy to attenuate early inflammation may limit the chronic consequences of joint injury. Therapeutic benefits of siRNA nanotherapy may also apply to primary OA in which NF-κB activation mediates chondrocyte catabolic responses. Additionally, a critical barrier to the successful development of OA treatment includes ineffective delivery of therapeutic agents to the resident chondrocytes in the avascular cartilage. Here, we show that the peptide-siRNA nanocomplexes are nonimmunogenic, are freely and deeply penetrant to human OA cartilage, and persist in chondrocyte lacunae for at least 2 wk. The peptide-siRNA platform thus provides a clinically relevant and promising approach to overcoming the obstacles of drug delivery to the highly inaccessible chondrocytes.

Neutrophil Proteases Promote Experimental Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm via Extracellular Trap Release and Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Activation.

OBJECTIVE: We previously established that neutrophil-derived dipeptidyl peptidase I (DPPI) is essential for experimental abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) development. Because DPPI activates several neutrophil serine proteases, it remains to be determined whether the AAA-promoting effect of DPPI is mediated by neutrophil serine proteases. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Using an elastase-induced AAA model, we demonstrate that the absence of 2 neutrophil serine proteases, neutrophil elastase and proteinase-3, recapitulates the AAA-resistant phenotype of DPPI-deficient mice. DPPI and neutrophil serine proteases direct the in vitro and in vivo release of extracellular structures termed neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Administration of DNase1, which dismantles NETs, suppresses elastase-induced AAA in wild-type animals and in DPPI-deficient mice reconstituted with wild-type neutrophils. NETs also contain the cathelicidin-related antimicrobial peptide that complexes with self-DNA in recruiting plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), inducing type I interferons (IFNs) and promoting AAA in DPPI-deficient mice. Conversely, depletion of pDCs or blockade of type I IFNs suppresses experimental AAA. Moreover, we find an abundance of human cathelicidin peptide, a 37 amino acid sequence starting with 2 leucines and the human orthologue of cathelicidin-related antimicrobial peptide, in the vicinity of pDCs in human AAA tissues. Increased type I IFN mRNA expression is observed in human AAA tissues and circulating IFN-α is detected in ≈50% of the AAA sera examined. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that neutrophil protease-mediated NET release contributes to elastase-induced AAA through pDC activation and type I IFN production. These findings increase our understanding of the pathways underlying AAA inflammatory responses and suggest that limiting NET, pDC, and type I IFN activities may suppress aneurysm progression.

Peptide-siRNA nanocomplexes targeting NF-κB subunit p65 suppress nascent experimental arthritis.

The NF-κB signaling pathway is implicated in various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA); therefore, inhibition of this pathway has the potential to ameliorate an array of inflammatory diseases. Given that NF-κB signaling is critical for many immune cell functions, systemic blockade of this pathway may lead to detrimental side effects. siRNAs coupled with a safe and effective delivery nanoplatform may afford the specificity lacking in systemic administration of small-molecule inhibitors. Here we demonstrated that a melittin-derived cationic amphipathic peptide combined with siRNA targeting the p65 subunit of NF-κB (p5RHH-p65) noncovalently self-assemble into stable nanocomplexes that home to the inflamed joints in a murine model of RA. Specifically, administration of p5RHH-p65 siRNA nanocomplexes abrogated inflammatory cytokine expression and cellular influx into the joints, protected against bone erosions, and preserved cartilage integrity. The p5RHH-p65 siRNA nanocomplexes potently suppressed early inflammatory arthritis without affecting p65 expression in off-target organs or eliciting a humoral response after serial injections. These data suggest that this self-assembling, largely nontoxic platform may have broad utility for the specific delivery of siRNA to target and limit inflammatory processes for the treatment of a variety of diseases.

Fumagillin prodrug nanotherapy suppresses macrophage inflammatory response via endothelial nitric oxide.

Antiangiogenesis has been extensively explored for the treatment of a variety of cancers and certain inflammatory processes. Fumagillin, a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus fumigatus that binds methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP-2), is a potent antiangiogenic agent. Native fumagillin, however, is poorly soluble and extremely unstable. We have developed a lipase-labile fumagillin prodrug (Fum-PD) that eliminated the photoinstability of the compound. Using αvß3-integrin-targeted perfluorocarbon nanocarriers to deliver Fum-PD specifically to angiogenic vessels, we effectively suppressed clinical disease in an experimental model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The exact mechanism by which Fum-PD-loaded targeted nanoparticles suppressed inflammation in experimental RA, however, remained unexplained. We herein present evidence that Fum-PD nanotherapy indirectly suppresses inflammation in experimental RA through the local production of endothelial nitric oxide (NO). Fum-PD-induced NO activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which subsequently modulates macrophage inflammatory response. In vivo, NO-induced AMPK activation inhibits mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity and enhances autophagic flux, as evidenced by p62 depletion and increased autolysosome formation. Autophagy in turn mediates the degradation of IkappaB kinase (IKK), suppressing the NF-κB p65 signaling pathway and inflammatory cytokine release. Inhibition of NO production by N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, reverses the suppression of NF-κB-mediated inflammatory response induced by Fum-PD nanotherapy. These unexpected results uncover an activity of Fum-PD nanotherapy that may be further explored in the treatment of angiogenesis-dependent diseases.

Fibrinogen-specific antibody induces abdominal aortic aneurysm in mice through complement lectin pathway activation.

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a common vascular disease associated with high mortality rate due to progressive enlargement and eventual rupture. There is currently no established therapy known to alter the rate of aneurysmal expansion. Thus, understanding the processes that initiate and sustain aneurysmal growth is pivotal for the development of medical therapies aimed at halting disease progression. Using an elastase-induced AAA mouse model that recapitulates key features of human AAA, we previously reported that a natural IgG antibody directs alternative pathway complement activation and initiates the inflammatory process that culminates in aneurysmal development. The target of this natural antibody, however, was unknown. Herein we identify a natural IgG that binds to fibrinogen deposited in elastase-perfused aortic tissues, activates the complement lectin pathway (LP), and induces AAA. Moreover, we establish that alterations in the glycosylation patterns of this antibody critically affect its ability to activate the LP in vivo. We find that LP activation precedes the alternative pathway and absence of the LP complement protein mannan-binding lectin abrogates elastase-induced AAA. In human AAA tissues the mouse anti-fibrinogen antibody recognizes epitopes that localize to the same areas that stain positively for mannan-binding lectin, which suggests that the complement LP is engaged in humans as well. Lastly, we demonstrate that circulating antibodies in a subset of AAA patients react against fibrinogen or fibrinogen-associated epitopes in human aneurysmal tissues. Our findings support the concept that an autoimmune process directed at aortic wall self-antigens may play a central role in the immunopathogenesis of AAA.

CD43-mediated IFN-γ production by CD8+ T cells promotes abdominal aortic aneurysm in mice.

CD43 is a glycosylated surface protein abundantly expressed on lymphocytes. Its role in immune responses has been difficult to clearly establish, with evidence supporting both costimulatory and inhibitory functions. In addition, its contribution to disease pathogenesis remains elusive. Using a well-characterized murine model of elastase-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) that recapitulates many key features of the human disease, we established that the presence of CD43 on T cells is required for AAA formation. Moreover, we found that IFN-γ-producing CD8(+) T cells, but not CD4(+) T cells, promote the development of aneurysm by enhancing cellular apoptosis and matrix metalloprotease activity. Reconstitution with IFN-γ-producing CD8(+) T cells or recombinant IFN-γ promotes the aneurysm phenotype in CD43(-/-) mice, whereas IFN-γ antagonism abrogates disease in wild-type animals. Furthermore, we showed that the presence of CD43 with an intact cytoplasmic domain capable of binding to ezrin-radixin-moesin cytoskeletal proteins is essential for optimal in vivo IFN-γ production by T cells and aneurysm formation. We have thus identified a robust physiologic role for CD43 in a relevant animal model and established an important in vivo function for CD43-dependent regulation of IFN-γ production. These results further suggest that IFN-γ antagonism or selective blockade of CD43(+)CD8(+) T cell activities merits further investigation for immunotherapy in AAA.