ISHLT, transplant ethics and forced organ harvesting.

In this Perspective article, we comment upon the recent statement from the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) regarding transplant ethics. This statement distinguishes ISHLT from other professional transplantation societies in relation to clinical and academic interactions with fellow transplant professionals from the People's Republic of China. While international exchange of knowledge, skills and expertise has been a valued hallmark of organ donation and transplantation, collaboration with a transplant program stained with credible evidence of unethical transplant practice that amount to crimes against humanity in relation to organ donor sources. Engagement therefore poses grave risks for transplantation institutions, groups and societies of complicity in atrocity crimes and subsequent legal prosecution. While all transplantation societies agree that historically the People's Republic of China has relied on executed prisoner organs for the vast majority of their organ donor supply, how each interacts professionally with their Chinese counterpart vary. In this Perspective article, we summarize the overwhelming body of evidence to support the allegations, signpost independent investigations that have critically appraised the evidence and highlight ongoing concerns regarding regulatory and scientific veracity which have led to the statement from the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. We believe this is a bold step that underlines the ethical integrity of the society and call upon other transplantation groups to follow this lead.

Recurrent brain ischaemia and deep vein thrombosis: the clot thickens.

A 65-year-old man presented with two transient ischaemic attacks, and was then found to have a deep vein thrombosis. He later had recurrent ischaemic strokes. After thorough investigation, the only cause we identified was a previously undiagnosed metastatic pancreatic cancer. We describe the assessment of this presentation and discuss the causes and management of cancer-related stroke.

Bridging the gap between pragmatic intervention design and theory: using behavioural science tools to modify an existing quality improvement programme to implement "Sepsis Six".

BACKGROUND: Sepsis has a mortality rate of 40 %, which can be halved if the evidence-based "Sepsis Six" care bundle is implemented within 1 h. UK audit shows low implementation rates. Interventions to improve this have had minimal effects. Quality improvement programmes could be further developed by using theoretical frameworks (Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF)) to modify existing interventions by identifying influences on clinical behaviour and selecting appropriate content. The aim of this study was to illustrate using this process to modify an intervention designed using plan-do-study-act (P-D-S-A) cycles that had achieved partial success in improving Sepsis Six implementation in one hospital. METHODS: Factors influencing implementation were investigated using the TDF to analyse interviews with 34 health professionals. The nursing team who developed and facilitated the intervention used the data to select modifications using the Behaviour Change Technique (BCT) Taxonomy (v1) and the APEASE criteria: affordability, practicability, effectiveness, acceptability, safety and equity. RESULTS: Five themes were identified as influencing implementation and guided intervention modification. These were:(1) "knowing what to do and why" (TDF domains knowledge, social/professional role and identity); (2) "risks and benefits" (beliefs about consequences), e.g. fear of harming patients through fluid overload acting as a barrier to implementation versus belief in the bundle's effectiveness acting as a lever to implementation; (3) "working together" (social influences, social/professional role and identity), e.g. team collaboration acting as a lever versus doctor/nurse conflict acting as a barrier; (4) "empowerment and support" (beliefs about capabilities, social/professional role and identity, behavioural regulation, social influences), e.g. involving staff in intervention development acting as a lever versus lack of confidence to challenge colleagues' decisions not to implement acting as a barrier; (5) "staffing levels" (environmental context and resources), e.g. shortages of doctors at night preventing implementation. The modified intervention included six new BCTs and consisted of two additional components (Sepsis Six training for the Hospital at Night Co-ordinator; a partnership agreement endorsing engagement of all clinical staff and permitting collegial challenge) and modifications to two existing components (staff education sessions; documents and materials). CONCLUSIONS: This work demonstrates the feasibility of the TDF and BCT Taxonomy (v1) for developing an existing quality improvement intervention. The tools are compatible with the pragmatic P-D-S-A cycle approach generally used in quality improvement work.

Cost-effectiveness of national mandatory screening of all admissions to English National Health Service hospitals for meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a mathematical modelling study.

BACKGROUND: In December, 2010, National Health Service (NHS) England introduced national mandatory screening of all admissions for meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). We aimed to assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of this policy, from a regional or national health-care decision makers' perspective, compared with alternative screening strategies. METHODS: We used an individual-based dynamic transmission model parameterised with national MRSA audit data to assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of admission screening of patients in English NHS hospitals compared with five alternative strategies (including no screening, checklist-activated screening, and high-risk specialty-based screening), accompanied by patient isolation and decolonisation, over a 5 year time horizon. We evaluated strategies for different NHS hospital types (acute, teaching, and specialist), MRSA prevalence, and transmission potentials using probabilistic sensitivity analyses. FINDINGS: Compared with no screening, mean cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) of screening all admissions was £89,000-148,000 (range £68,000-222,000), and this strategy was consistently more costly and less effective than alternatives for all hospital types. At a £30,000/QALY willingness-to-pay threshold and current prevalence, only the no-screening strategy was cost effective. The next best strategies were, in acute and teaching hospitals, targeting of high-risk specialty admissions (30-40% chance of cost-effectiveness; mean incremental cost-effectiveness ratios [ICERs] £45,200 [range £35,300-61,400] and £48,000/QALY [£34,600-74,800], respectively) and, in specialist hospitals, screening these patients plus risk-factor-based screening of low-risk specialties (a roughly 20% chance of cost-effectiveness; mean ICER £62,600/QALY [£48,000-89,400]). As prevalence and transmission increased, targeting of high-risk specialties became the optimum strategy at the NHS willingness-to-pay threshold (£30,000/QALY). Switching from screening all admissions to only high-risk specialty admissions resulted in a mean reduction in total costs per year (not considering uncertainty) of £2·7 million per acute hospital, £2·9 million per teaching, and £474,000 per specialist hospital for a minimum rise in infections (about one infection per year per hospital). INTERPRETATION: Our results show that screening all admissions for MRSA is unlikely to be cost effective in England at the current NHS willingness-to-pay threshold, and our findings informed modified guidance to NHS England in 2014. Screening admissions to high-risk specialties is likely to represent better resource use in terms of cost per QALY gained. FUNDING: UK Department of Health.

National observational study to evaluate the "cleanyourhands" campaign (NOSEC): a questionnaire based study of national implementation.

INTRODUCTION: The number of national hand-hygiene campaigns has increased recently, following the World Health Organisation's (WHO) "Save Lives: clean your hands" initiative (2009), which offers hospitals a multi-component hand-hygiene intervention. The number of campaigns to be evaluated remains small. Most evaluations focus on consumption of alcohol hand rub (AHR). We are not aware of any evaluation reporting implementation of all campaign components. In a previously published report, we evaluated the effects of the English and Welsh cleanyourhands campaign (2004-8) on procurement of AHR and soap, and on selected healthcare associated infections. We now report on the implementation of each individual campaign component: provision of bedside AHR, ward posters, patient empowerment materials, audit and feedback, and guidance to secure institutional engagement. SETTING: all 189 acute National Health Service (NHS) hospitals in England and Wales (December 2005-June 2008). Six postal questionnaires (five voluntary, one mandatory) were distributed to infection control teams six-monthly from 6 to 36 months post roll-out. Selection and attrition bias were measured. RESULTS: Response rates fell from 134 (71 %) at 6 months to 82 (44 %) at 30 months, rising to 167 (90 %) for the final mandatory one (36 months). There was no evidence of attrition or selection bias. Hospitals reported widespread early implementation of bedside AHR and posters and a gradual rise in audit. At 36 months, 90 % of respondents reported the campaign to be a top hospital priority, with implementation of AHR, posters and audit reported by 96 %, 97 % and 91 % respectively. Patient empowerment was less successful. CONCLUSIONS: The study suggests that all campaign components, apart from patient empowerment, were widely implemented and sustained. It supports previous work suggesting that adequate piloting, strong governmental support, refreshment of campaigns, and sufficient time to engage institutions help secure sustained implementation of a campaign's key components. The results should encourage countries wishing to launch coordinated national campaigns for hospitals to participate in the WHO's "Save Lives" initiative, which offers hospitals a similar multi-component intervention.

Characterising an implementation intervention in terms of behaviour change techniques and theory: the 'Sepsis Six' clinical care bundle.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis is a major cause of death from infection, with a mortality rate of 36 %. This can be halved by implementing the 'Sepsis Six' evidence-based care bundle within 1 h of presentation. A UK audit has shown that median implementation rates are 27-47 % and interventions to improve this have demonstrated minimal effects. In order to develop more effective implementation interventions, it is helpful to obtain detailed characterisations of current interventions and to draw on behavioural theory to identify mechanisms of change. The aim of this study was to illustrate this process by using the Behaviour Change Wheel; Behaviour Change Technique (BCT) Taxonomy; Capability, Opportunity, Motivation model of behaviour; and Theoretical Domains Framework to characterise the content and theoretical mechanisms of action of an existing intervention to implement Sepsis Six. METHODS: Data came from documentary, interview and observational analyses of intervention delivery in several wards of a UK hospital. A broad description of the intervention was created using the Template for Intervention Description and Replication framework. Content was specified in terms of (i) component BCTs using the BCT Taxonomy and (ii) intervention functions using the Behaviour Change Wheel. Mechanisms of action were specified using the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation model and the Theoretical Domains Framework. RESULTS: The intervention consisted of 19 BCTs, with eight identified using all three data sources. The BCTs were delivered via seven functions of the Behaviour Change Wheel, with four ('education', 'enablement', 'training' and 'environmental restructuring') supported by the three data sources. The most frequent mechanisms of action were reflective motivation (especially 'beliefs about consequences' and 'beliefs about capabilities') and psychological capability (especially 'knowledge'). CONCLUSIONS: The intervention consisted of a wide range of BCTs targeting a wide range of mechanisms of action. This study demonstrates the utility of the Behaviour Change Wheel, the BCT Taxonomy and the Theoretical Domains Framework, tools recognised for providing guidance for intervention design, for characterising an existing intervention to implement evidence-based care.

Using psychological theory to understand the challenges facing staff delivering a ward-led intervention to increase hand hygiene behavior: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: The Feedback Intervention Trial was a national trial of an intervention to increase hand hygiene behavior in English and Welsh hospitals. It significantly improved behavior, the effect increasing with fidelity to intervention, but the intervention proved more difficult to implement than anticipated. This study aimed to identify the barriers to and facilitators of implementation as experienced by those who delivered the intervention. METHODS: Semistructured interviews were conducted with 17 intervention ward coordinators implementing the intervention. Interview questions were based on the Theoretical Domains Framework. Text relating to each domain was scored according to whether it indicated low or high likelihood of implementation, and thematic analysis conducted. RESULTS: The lowest scoring domains were "environmental context and resources," "beliefs about capabilities," "social influences," and "emotion." Lack of time and understaffing, perceived negativity from other staff members, and stress were identified as challenges to implementation. The highest scoring domains were "behavioral regulation," "motivation," "skills," "knowledge," and "professional role." Ward coordinators reported that they had the skills, understanding, and motivation to implement the intervention and spoke of consistency of tasks with existing roles. CONCLUSION: Implementation might be improved by giving designated time for intervention tasks and ensuring that the ward coordinator role is allocated to staff for whom tasks are commensurate with existing professional roles.

Application of a theoretical framework for behavior change to hospital workers' real-time explanations for noncompliance with hand hygiene guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Insufficient use of behavioral theory to understand health care workers' (HCWs) hand hygiene compliance may result in suboptimal design of hand hygiene interventions and limit effectiveness. Previous studies examined HCWs' intended, rather than directly observed, compliance and/or focused on just 1 behavioral model. This study examined HCWs' explanations of noncompliance in "real time" (immediately after observation), using a behavioral theory framework, to inform future intervention design. METHODS: HCWs were directly observed and asked to explain episodes of noncompliance in "real-time." Explanations were recorded, coded into 12 behavioral domains, using the Theory Domains Framework, and subdivided into themes. RESULTS: Over two-thirds of 207 recorded explanations were explained by 2 domains. These were "Memory/Attention/Decision Making" (87, 44%), subdivided into 3 themes (memory, loss of concentration, and distraction by interruptions), and "Knowledge" (55, 26%), with 2 themes relating to specific hand hygiene indications. No other domain accounted for more than 18 (9%) explanations. CONCLUSION: An explanation of HCW's "real-time" explanations for noncompliance identified "Memory/Attention/Decision Making" and "Knowledge" as the 2 behavioral domains commonly linked to noncompliance. This suggests that hand hygiene interventions should target both automatic associative learning processes and conscious decision making, in addition to ensuring good knowledge. A theoretical framework to investigate HCW's "real-time" explanations of noncompliance provides a coherent way to design hand hygiene interventions.

The national one week prevalence audit of universal meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) admission screening 2012.

INTRODUCTION: The English Department of Health introduced universal MRSA screening of admissions to English hospitals in 2010. It commissioned a national audit to review implementation, impact on patient management, admission prevalence and extra yield of MRSA identified compared to "high-risk" specialty or "checklist-activated" screening (CLAS) of patients with MRSA risk factors. METHODS: National audit May 2011. Questionnaires to infection control teams in all English NHS acute trusts, requesting number patients admitted and screened, new or previously known MRSA; MRSA point prevalence; screening and isolation policies; individual risk factors and patient management for all new MRSA patients and random sample of negatives. RESULTS: 144/167 (86.2%) trusts responded. Individual patient data for 760 new MRSA patients and 951 negatives. 61% of emergency admissions (median 67.3%), 81% (median 59.4%) electives and 47% (median 41.4%) day-cases were screened. MRSA admission prevalence: 1% (median 0.9%) emergencies, 0.6% (median 0.4%) electives, 0.4% (median 0%) day-cases. Approximately 50% all MRSA identified was new. Inpatient MRSA point prevalence: 3.3% (median 2.9%). 104 (77%) trusts pre-emptively isolated patients with previous MRSA, 63 (35%) pre-emptively isolated admissions to "high-risk" specialties; 7 (5%) used PCR routinely. Mean time to MRSA positive result: 2.87 days (±1.33); 37% (219/596) newly identified MRSA patients discharged before result available; 55% remainder (205/376) isolated post-result. In an average trust, CLAS would reduce screening by 50%, identifying 81% of all MRSA. "High risk" specialty screening would reduce screening by 89%, identifying 9% of MRSA. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of universal screening was poor. Admission prevalence (new cases) was low. CLAS reduced screening effort for minor decreases in identification, but implementation may prove difficult. Cost effectiveness of this and other policies, awaits evaluation by transmission dynamic economic modelling, using data from this audit. Until then trusts should seek to improve implementation of current policy and use of isolation facilities.

Use of B→J/ψ f0 decays to discern the qq or tetraquark nature of scalar mesons.

We consider the relative decay rates of B(0) and Bs(0) mesons into a J/ψ plus a light scalar meson, either the f0(500) (σ) or the f0(980). We show that it is possible to distinguish between the quark content of the scalars being quark-antiquark or tetraquark by measuring specific ratios of decay rates. Using current data we determine the ratio of form factors in Bs(0)→J/ψf0(980) with respect to B(0)→J/ψf0(500) decays to be 0.99(-0.04)(+0.13) at a four-momentum transfer squared equal to the mass of the J/ψ meson squared. In the case where these light mesons are considered to be quark-antiquark states, we give a determination of the mixing angle between strange and light quark states of less than 29° at 90% confidence level. We also discuss the use of a similar ratio to investigate the structure of other isospin singlet states.

The Feedback Intervention Trial (FIT)--improving hand-hygiene compliance in UK healthcare workers: a stepped wedge cluster randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Achieving a sustained improvement in hand-hygiene compliance is the WHO's first global patient safety challenge. There is no RCT evidence showing how to do this. Systematic reviews suggest feedback is most effective and call for long term well designed RCTs, applying behavioural theory to intervention design to optimise effectiveness. METHODS: Three year stepped wedge cluster RCT of a feedback intervention testing hypothesis that the intervention was more effective than routine practice in 16 English/Welsh Hospitals (16 Intensive Therapy Units [ITU]; 44 Acute Care of the Elderly [ACE] wards) routinely implementing a national cleanyourhands campaign). Intervention-based on Goal & Control theories. Repeating 4 week cycle (20 mins/week) of observation, feedback and personalised action planning, recorded on forms. Computer-generated stepwise entry of all hospitals to intervention. Hospitals aware only of own allocation. PRIMARY OUTCOME: direct blinded hand hygiene compliance (%). RESULTS: All 16 trusts (60 wards) randomised, 33 wards implemented intervention (11 ITU, 22 ACE). Mixed effects regression analysis (all wards) accounting for confounders, temporal trends, ward type and fidelity to intervention (forms/month used). INTENTION TO TREAT ANALYSIS: Estimated odds ratio (OR) for hand hygiene compliance rose post randomisation (1.44; 95% CI 1.18, 1.76;p<0.001) in ITUs but not ACE wards, equivalent to 7-9% absolute increase in compliance. PER-PROTOCOL ANALYSIS FOR IMPLEMENTING WARDS: OR for compliance rose for both ACE (1.67 [1.28-2.22]; p<0.001) & ITUs (2.09 [1.55-2.81]; p<0.001) equating to absolute increases of 10-13% and 13-18% respectively. Fidelity to intervention closely related to compliance on ITUs (OR 1.12 [1.04, 1.20]; p = 0.003 per completed form) but not ACE wards. CONCLUSION: Despite difficulties in implementation, intention-to-treat, per-protocol and fidelity to intervention, analyses showed an intervention coupling feedback to personalised action planning produced moderate but significant sustained improvements in hand-hygiene compliance, in wards implementing a national hand-hygiene campaign. Further implementation studies are needed to maximise the intervention's effect in different settings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN65246961.