High Frequency of Deletions in the pfhrp2 and pfhrp3 Genes of Plasmodium falciparum in the Middle Rio Negro Region of the Brazilian Amazon.

Several countries are reporting natural populations of P. falciparum with deletions in the pfhrp2/3 genes that can lead to false-negative results in rapid diagnostic tests. To investigate the prevalence of deletion in the pfhrp2/3 genes in the Rio Negro basin in the Brazilian Amazon and identify whether there is clinical differentiation between individuals infected by these parasites, clinical samples collected from 2003 to 2016 were analyzed from symptomatic and asymptomatic P. falciparum-infected individuals. The molecular deletion of pfhrp2 and pfhrp3 genes was evaluated using the protocols recommended by the WHO. From 82 samples used, 28 (34.2%) had a single deletion in pfhrp2, 19 (23.2%) had a single deletion in pfhrp3, 15 (18.3%) had a double deletion (pfhrp2/3), and 20 (24.4%) did not have a deletion in either gene. In total, 29.3% of individuals had an asymptomatic plasmodial infection and were 3.64 times more likely to have parasites with a double deletion (pfhrp2/3) than patients with clinical malaria (p = 0.02). The high prevalence of parasites with pfhrp2/3 deletions shows the need to implement a surveillance program in this area. Deletions in parasites may be associated with the clinical pattern of the disease in this area. More studies must be carried out to elucidate these findings.

Clinical and parasitological features of Leishmania infection among gold miners in the Oiapoque basin, an international Brazil-French Guiana border.

Gold miners working illegally in mines live in poor health conditions related to their strenuous work and precarious housing. Therefore, they are at higher risk for infectious diseases. American tegumentary leishmaniasis (ATL) appears to be of great concern to the population living in the Guiana Shield region. Our aim was to describe their demographic characteristics, the clinical features of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), and the frequency of Leishmania infection in people working in illegal gold mines in French Guiana. A cross-sectional study was carried out from October to December 2019 in Oiapoque city, Amapá, Brazil. Indeed, many gold miners working in French Guiana are originally from Brazil, and from Oiapoque in particular. A total of 105 participants from 31 different mining sites in French Guiana were recruited. Suspected Leishmania infection was confirmed by the following: detection of kDNA in blood or the lesion site; detection of specific antibodies; or detection of IFN-γ release after blood incubation with leishmanial antigens (IGRA-Leish). Nine active CL cases, 38 healed ATL (hATL) and 58 cases with no history of ATL (noATL), were identified. Only half of the treated hATL (50.0%; n = 14) reported having been assisted by a health care unit and the others treated themselves. PCR-kDNA for Leishmania was positive in the blood of 100% of CL cases. Curiously, blood PCR-kDNA was positive in 13% of hATL patients and in 15.5% of noATL patients. The IGRA-Leish was positive in 60.5% of hATL and in 37.9% of noATL. In addition to scars suggestive of CL, 71% of hATL had laboratory evidence of Leishmania infection. Restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP) of the hsp70 gene identified a sympatric circulation of L. (V.) guyanensis (n = 4), L. (V.) braziliensis (n = 1), L. (L.) amazonensis (n = 2), L. (V.) shawi (n = 1) and L. (V.) naiffi/shawi (n = 1). Taking the laboratory techniques and the clinical evaluations together, 76% (n = 80) of the 105 participants had evidence of Leishmania infection. These results suggests that illegal gold miners working in French Guiana are at high risk for infection with different species of Leishmania, but their illegal condition and remoteness make it difficult for them to access health services.

Malaria in areas under mining activity in the Amazon: A review.

Deforestation and high human mobility due to mining activities have been key to the increase in malaria cases in the Americas. Here, we review the epidemiological and control aspects of malaria in the Amazon mining areas. Epidemiological evidence shows: 1) a positive correlation between illegal mining activity and malaria incidence, mostly in the Amazon region; 2) most Brazilian miners are males aged 15-29 years who move between states and even countries; 3) miners do not fear the disease and rely on medical care, diagnosis, and medication when they become ill; 4) illegal mining has emerged as the most reported anthropogenic activity within indigenous lands and is identified as a major cause of malaria outbreaks among indigenous people in the Amazon; and 5) because mining is largely illegal, most areas are not covered by any healthcare facilities or activities, leading to little assistance in the diagnosis and treatment of malaria. Our review identified five strategies for reducing the malaria incidence in areas with mining activities: 1) reviewing legislation to control deforestation and mining expansion, particularly in indigenous lands; 2) strengthening malaria surveillance by expanding the network of community health agents to support rapid diagnosis and treatment; 3) reinforcing vector control strategies, such as the use of insecticide-treated nets; 4) integrating deforestation alerts into the national malaria control program; and 5) implementing multi-sectoral activities and providing prompt assistance to indigenous populations. With this roadmap, we can expect a decrease in malaria incidence in the Amazonian mining areas in the future.

Core principles of Malakit intervention for transferability in other contexts.

To eliminate malaria, all populations must be included. For those who are not reached by the health care system, specific interventions must be tailor-made. An innovative Malakit strategy, based on the distribution of self-diagnosis and self-treatment kits, has been evaluated in the Suriname-French Guiana- Amapá (Brazil) region. The results showed effectiveness and good acceptability. The Malakit intervention is complex and has many components. Its transferability requires adaptation to other populations and regions, while retaining the main features of the intervention. This article provides the keys to adapting, implementing and evaluating it in other contexts facing residual malaria in hard-to-reach and/or mobile populations. The process of transferring this intervention includes: diagnosis of the situation (malaria epidemiology, characteristics of the population affected) to define the relevance of the strategy; determination of the stakeholders and the framework of the intervention (research project or public health intervention); adaptation modalities (adaptation of the kit, training, distribution strategy); the role of community health workers and their need for training and supervision. Finally, evaluation needs are specified in relation to prospects for geographical or temporal extension. Malaria elimination is likely to increasingly involve marginalized people due to climate change and displacement of populations. Evaluation of the transferability and effectiveness of the Malakit strategy in new contexts will be essential to increase and refine the evidence of its value, and to decide whether it could be an additional tool in the arsenal recommended in future WHO guidelines.

Cooperation for malaria control and elimination in the Guiana Shield.

The Guiana Shield, a small region of South America, is currently one of the main hotspots of malaria transmission on the continent. This Amazonian area is characterised by remarkable socioeconomic, cultural, health, and political heterogeneity and a high degree of regional and cross-border population mobility, which has contributed to the increase of malaria in the region in the past few years. In this context, regional cooperation to control malaria represents both a challenge and an indispensable initiative. This Viewpoint advocates for the creation of a regional cooperative mechanism for the elimination of malaria in the Guiana Shield. This strategy would help address operational and political obstacles to successful technical cooperation in the region and could contribute to reversing the regional upsurge in malaria incidence through creating a functional international control and elimination partnership.

Malaria in areas under mining activity in the Amazon: A review

ABSTRACT Deforestation and high human mobility due to mining activities have been key to the increase in malaria cases in the Americas. Here, we review the epidemiological and control aspects of malaria in the Amazon mining areas. Epidemiological evidence shows: 1) a positive correlation between illegal mining activity and malaria incidence, mostly in the Amazon region; 2) most Brazilian miners are males aged 15-29 years who move between states and even countries; 3) miners do not fear the disease and rely on medical care, diagnosis, and medication when they become ill; 4) illegal mining has emerged as the most reported anthropogenic activity within indigenous lands and is identified as a major cause of malaria outbreaks among indigenous people in the Amazon; and 5) because mining is largely illegal, most areas are not covered by any healthcare facilities or activities, leading to little assistance in the diagnosis and treatment of malaria. Our review identified five strategies for reducing the malaria incidence in areas with mining activities: 1) reviewing legislation to control deforestation and mining expansion, particularly in indigenous lands; 2) strengthening malaria surveillance by expanding the network of community health agents to support rapid diagnosis and treatment; 3) reinforcing vector control strategies, such as the use of insecticide-treated nets; 4) integrating deforestation alerts into the national malaria control program; and 5) implementing multi-sectoral activities and providing prompt assistance to indigenous populations. With this roadmap, we can expect a decrease in malaria incidence in the Amazonian mining areas in the future.

Social determinants of health among people working on informal gold mines in French Guiana: a multicentre cross-sectional survey.

INTRODUCTION: Social determinants of health, such as living and working conditions, economical and environmental context and access to care, combine to impact the health of individuals and communities. In French Guiana (FG), the persons working in informal artisanal and small-scale gold mining in the rainforest are a particularly vulnerable population which lives in precarious conditions and far from the health system. Previous studies have demonstrated their high morbidity due to infectious diseases. This study aims to describe the social determinants of health in this specific population. METHODS: This international multicentre cross-sectional survey included people working on the informal FG gold mines at the crossing points located at both borders with Suriname and Brazil. After collecting written informed consent, a structured questionnaire was administered. RESULTS: From September to December 2022, 539 gold miners were included. These poorly educated migrants, mainly from Brazil (99.1%) did not have access to drinkable water (95.4%), lived in close contact with wild fauna by hunting, eating bushmeat or being bitten and were exposed to mercury by inhalation (58.8%) or ingestion (80.5%). They report frequent accidents (13.5%) and chronic treatment interruptions (26.6% of the 11.9% reporting chronic treatment). Half of them considered themselves in good health (56.4%). CONCLUSION: This study shows a singular combination of adverse exposures of gold miners working in FG such as zoonoses, heavy metal poisoning, aggression of wild fauna. For ethical as well as public health reasons, actions towards health equity must be considered at different levels: individual, community, environmental, systemic and global level. As end users of minerals, we must assume our responsibilities for the well-being of the extractors by including health in political decisions to engage together in global health. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT05540470.

Training-of-trainers program for community health workers involved in an innovative and community-based intervention against malaria among goldminers in the Guiana shield: a quality and effectiveness evaluation.

Introduction: An innovative and community-based intervention is implemented in the Guiana Shield to eliminate malaria among people involved in artisanal and small-scale gold mining. The intervention consists of the distribution of malaria self-management kits to goldminers and the presumptive treatment for individuals at risk of carrying Plasmodium vivax hypnozoites. The intervention is possible owing to community health workers (CHWs) who are previously trained to master all intervention procedures, including health education activities and goldmining training. This study aimed to evaluate the training program provided to CHWs in terms of quality and effectiveness. Methods: A training-of-trainers program for CHWs has been developed based on the CDC framework. A mixed-method case study was implemented in two steps between February and March 2023. The evaluation was based on a knowledge survey, satisfaction test, observations, and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed and triangulated. Results: A total of 20 CHWs participated in the training and the first-step evaluation. For the second step, four semi-structured interviews were conducted. The Qualitative data showed that group dynamics and adaptations were central elements of a high-quality training program. Quantitative analysis found that CHWs' satisfaction was elevated (> 4/5 overall), especially regarding format and learning results. Improvements in knowledge level demonstrated good effectiveness (pre-training vs. post-training, p < 0.05). Nevertheless, some difficulties persisted regarding tasks of the intervention procedure, such as informed consent and smartphone application procedures (with an inaccuracy rate of 29.2% and 16.7%, respectively). Further on-the-job training permitted to address these issues. The project team's previous experience and the Guiana Shield countries' commitment to the WHO-E-2025-initiative were identified as levers for the quality of the training, while the complexity of the project context was a challenge. Discussion: High-quality, effective, and appropriate training programs are required for effective and sustainable interventions involving CHW profiles. Training design is a crucial point to address to accomplish quality and effectiveness. The training-of-trainers model has been shown to allow a high level of satisfaction, good learning results, and satisfactory implementation in the field. Initial and continuing training is an indispensable continuum to sustain good practices in the field and CHWs' motivation. Training evaluation permits standardizing methods and facilitates transferability.

Planejamento e gestão do processo de trabalho em saúde: avanços e limites no Subsistema de Atenção à Saúde Indígena do SUS / Planning and management of the health work process: advances and limits in the SUS-Indigenous Health Care Subsystem

Resumo O Subsistema de Atenção à Saúde Indígena (SasiSUS), como parte do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), é responsável pela atenção à saúde dos povos indígenas do Brasil. Em âmbito local, são os Distritos Sanitários Especiais Indígenas (DSEI) os responsáveis pela gestão, planejamento e organização do processo de trabalho das equipes multidisciplinares de saúde indígena (EMSI), que realizam a atenção primária à saúde para essa população. O objetivo do estudo foi analisar como ocorrem o planejamento e a gestão do processo de trabalho das EMSI. Foi realizado um estudo de casos múltiplos holístico, considerando sete DSEI como unidades de análise. A principal fonte de dados utilizada foi a entrevista e, de forma complementar, a observação direta. Os resultados indicaram que, de forma geral, o planejamento está presente na organização do processo de trabalho das equipes, com variações entre os DSEI. A efetivação das ações planejadas foi relacionada à disponibilidade de diferentes recursos: funcionamento adequado do sistema de informação e a articulação intra e intersetorial do SasiSUS. Como conclusão, apontou-se a necessidade de radicalização da participação no planejamento e na gestão, necessária a uma ação coordenada para garantia da atenção diferenciada e dos princípios do SUS.

Abstract The Indigenous Health Care Subsystem (SasiSUS), as part of the Brazilian National Health System (SUS), is responsible for health care for indigenous peoples in Brazil. At the local level, the Special Indigenous Health Districts (DSEI) are responsible for managing, planning, and organizing the work process of the multidisciplinary indigenous health teams (EMSI), which provide primary health care for this population. The objective of the study was to analyze how the planning and the management of the EMSI work process occurs. A holistic multiple-case study was carried out, considering seven DSEI as units of analysis. The main source of data used were interviews and, in a complementary way, direct observation. The results indicated that, in general, planning is present in the organization of the teams' work process, with variations between the DSEI. Carrying out the planned actions was related to the availability of different resources: adequate functioning of the information system and the intra and intersectoral articulation of SasiSUS. As a conclusion, the need to radicalize participation in planning and management, necessary for a coordinated action to guarantee differentiated care and the principles of SUS, was pointed out.

Malaria in Haiti: A descriptive study on spatial and temporal profile from 2009 to 2018

ABSTRACT Background: Haiti is one of the Caribbean countries where malaria persists. More than 99% of malaria cases are caused by Plasmodium falciparum, the main vector being the mosquito Anopheles albimanus. In this paper, we describe the epidemiological profile of malaria in Haiti between 2009 and 2018. Methods We analyzed information on cases reported by the Ministry of Health of Haiti and the World Health Organization (WHO). Results: Between 2009 and 2018, 232,479 malaria cases were reported by the Ministry of Public Health and Population (MSPP); an increase in the incidence of malaria in the country in 2010, followed by a decrease in 2011, was primarily observed. Due to recent efforts to reduce malaria by 2020, its incidence declined from 60,130 cases in 2010 to 8,978 cases in 2018. Controversially, in terms of the number of reported cases, the MSPP and WHO report conflicting data. However, the results from both datasets present the same trend in Haiti from 2009 to 2018. The results also illustrate the endemicity of the disease throughout Haiti, both in rural and urban areas, especially along the coast. Conclusions: This study emphasizes the need to promote official data collection and analyses, as well as the application of epidemiological surveillance of malaria at the municipal level, for a better understanding of the real impact of malaria on the Haitian population and to create more appropriate interventions.

Estudo de avaliabilidade do Sistema de Informação da Atenção à Saúde Indígena: potencialidades e desafios para apoiar a gestão em saúde no nível local / Study of the evaluability of the Information System on Indigenous Health: potentialities and challenges for supporting local health administration / Estudio de evaluabilidad del Sistema de Información de Atención en Salud al Indígena: potencialidades y desafíos para apoyar la gestión en salud en el nivel local

O objetivo do artigo é apresentar os resultados do estudo de avaliabilidade do Sistema de Informação da Atenção à Saúde Indígena (SIASI) e suas implicações para a gestão em saúde no nível local. O estudo foi desenvolvido com base nas seguintes etapas: descrição da intervenção, descrição dos usuários potenciais e análise de contexto (interno e externo). Para tanto, adotaram-se as seguintes técnicas de coleta de dados: análise documental, entrevistas com informantes-chave e oficina de trabalho. A modelização do SIASI no Distrito Sanitário Especial Indígena (DSEI) Alto Rio Solimões (Amazonas) e no DSEI Leste Roraima (Roraima) possibilitou a visualização esquemática do modo de funcionamento do sistema, considerando-se as peculiaridades do fluxo de informação descentralizado e centralizado. A análise de contexto aponta para o reconhecimento do SIASI como ferramenta para a organização do processo de trabalho das equipes multidisciplinares de saúde indígena (EMSI) e o acompanhamento da situação de saúde, ainda que ocorra baixa utilização das informações nos territórios. Entre os desafios, persistem os problemas de infraestrutura e a fragmentação das informações, provocando aumento do retrabalho na alimentação dos dados. Como potencialidade, destaca-se a criação do Painel SIASI Local, que gera relatórios dinâmicos e interativos sobre a situação de saúde. Conclui-se que a capacidade de utilização do SIASI como ferramenta de apoio à gestão pelo nível local pode ser potencializada com a ampliação do processo de descentralização do fluxo de informações.

The article's objective is to present the results of the study on the evaluability of the Information System on Indigenous Health (SIASI) and its implications for local health administration. The study was performed with the following stages: description of the intervention, description of potential users, and context analysis (internal and external). The following data collection techniques were adopted: document analysis, interviews with key informants, and a workshop. Modeling of the SIASI in the Special Indigenous Health District Upper Solimões River (Amazonas State) and Special Indigenous Health District Eastern Roraima (Roraima State) allowed a schematic view of the system's mode of functioning, considering the peculiarities of the decentralized and centralized information flow. Context analysis pointed to acknowledgment of the SIASI as a tool for organization of the work process in the multidisciplinary indigenous health team (EMSI) and for follow-up of the health situation, despite low utilization of the information in the territories. Persistent challenges include infrastructure problems and fragmentation of information, causing an increase in rework in feeding the data. One key feature is the creation of the Local SIASI Panel, generating dynamic and interactive reports on the health situation. In conclusion, the capacity for use of the SIASI as a tool to support local management can be enhanced by expanding the decentralization of the information flow.

El objetivo del artículo es presentar los resultados del estudio de evaluabilidad del Sistema de Información de Atención en Salud al Indígena (SIASI) y sus implicaciones para la gestión sanitaria en el nivel local. El estudio se desarrolló en base a las siguientes etapas: descripción de la intervención, descripción de los usuarios potenciales y análisis de contexto (interno y externo). Para tal fin se adoptaron las siguientes técnicas de recogida de datos: análisis documental, entrevistas con informantes-clave y taller de trabajo. La modelización del SIASI en el Distrito Sanitário Especial Indígena (DSEI) Alto Rio Solimões (Amazonas) y en el DSEI Leste Roraima (Roraima) posibilitó la visualización esquemática del modo de funcionamiento del sistema, considerándose las peculiaridades del flujo de información descentralizado y centralizado. El análisis de contexto apunta al reconocimiento del SIASI como herramienta para la organización del proceso de trabajo de los equipos multidisciplinares de salud indígena (EMSI) y el seguimiento de la situación de salud, aunque exista una baja utilización de la información en los territorios. Entre los desafíos persisten los problemas de infraestructura y fragmentación de la información, provocando un aumento del retrabajo en la alimentación de datos. Como potencialidad se destaca la creación del Panel SIASI Local que genera informes dinámicos e interactivos sobre la situación de salud. Se concluye que la capacidad de utilización del SIASI como herramienta de apoyo a la gestión por parte del nivel local puede potenciarse con la ampliación del proceso de descentralización del flujo de información.

Desigualdade social e vulnerabilidade dos povos indígenas no enfrentamento da Covid-19: um olhar dos atores nas lives / Social inequality and vulnerability of Indigenous peoples facing COVID-19: a perspective by stakeholders in the lives

RESUMO A pandemia da Covid-19 tem evidenciado as profundas desigualdades da sociedade brasileira para o enfrentamento adequado dessa catástrofe sanitária. Este estudo buscou compreender as repercussões da Covid-19 nos povos indígenas brasileiros e a sua forma de organização no contexto de desigualdade social e vulnerabilidade. Realizou-se uma pesquisa qualitativa a partir da análise de lives. A busca foi feita via plataforma YouTube usando como descritores "coronavírus e indígena" e "covid e população indígena", totalizando 56 lives - que permitiram analisar diversos olhares para o enfrentamento da pandemia, sendo evidente que o ponto de partida para prevenção, vigilância, atenção em saúde e comunicação da Covid-19 entre os povos indígenas é totalmente diferente do resto da população. O protagonismo da sociedade civil indígena está sendo extremamente relevante para o enfrentamento da pandemia. A profunda desigualdade social e as múltiplas vulnerabilidades dos povos indígenas são realidades que devem ser entendidas para superar os enormes desafios produzidos, não somente pela Covid-19, mas fundamentalmente pelo atual contexto de invisibilização, desconhecimento e ataque às sociedades indígenas brasileiras. O controle social ficou muito fragilizado, e urge seu fortalecimento para criar um modelo de saúde diferenciado que realmente contemple os interesses e modos de vida desses povos.

ABSTRACT The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the deep inequalities of Brazilian society to address this health-related catastrophe. This study aimed to understand the repercussions of COVID-19 on Brazilian Indigenous peoples and how they organize in the context of social inequalities and vulnerabilities. Qualitative research was conducted based on the analysis of 'lives'. The search was performed on YouTube using descriptors "coronavirus and Indigenous" and "COVID and Indigenous population", totaling 56 live events, which allowed us to analyze different perspectives on the fight against the pandemic showing that the starting point for COVID-19 prevention, surveillance, health care, and communication among Indigenous peoples is different from the rest of the population. The leading role of the Indigenous civil society is highly relevant to the fight against the pandemic. The profound inequality and the multiple vulnerabilities of Indigenous peoples are realities that must be understood to overcome the enormous challenges produced not only by COVID-19 and, fundamentally, the current context of invisibility, ignorance, and attack on Brazilian Indigenous societies. Social control has been weakened, and its strengthening is urgent to create a differentiated health model that considers these people's interests and ways of life.

Malária na fronteira do Brasil com a Guiana Francesa: a influência dos determinantes sociais e ambientais da saúde na permanência da doença / Malaria in the borders between Brazil and French Guiana: social and environmental health determinants and their influence on the permanence of the disease

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a influência dos determinantes socioambientais da saúde na incidência de malária por Plasmodium vivax na fronteira franco-brasileira. O estudo foi realizado entre 2011 e 2015, no município de Oiapoque (AP), na Amazônia brasileira. Foram incluídos na amostra 253 indivíduos de ambos os sexos, de 10 a 60 anos de idade. Houve predominância de 63,64% (161/253) de casos de malária em adultos do sexo masculino. A faixa etária mais acometida foi de 20 a 29 anos, com 30% (76/253); 84,6% (214/253) dos pacientes não concluíram o ensino médio, e 29,6% (75/253) não concluíram o ensino primário. No aspecto ambiental, houve correlação negativa entre as precipitações pluviométricas e a incidência da malária por P. vivax (p=0,0026). Em termos de mobilidade, constatou-se considerável proporção de migrantes provenientes dos estados do Pará e do Maranhão (55,73%; 141/253). Por fim, os dados apontaram que 31,23% (79/253) dos casos de malária foram importados da Guiana Francesa. Em síntese, a transmissão da malária na fronteira franco-brasileira envolve fatores ecológico-ambientais, biológicos e sociais que se expressam na elevada vulnerabilidade social da população que vive e circula na zona fronteiriça, favorecendo a ocorrência de surtos e a permanência da enfermidade.

Abstract This study analyzes the influence of socio-environmental health determinants on the maintenance of Plasmodium vivax malaria at the borders between French Guiana and Brazil. This study was carried out between 2011 and 2015 in the city of Oiapoque, Amapá, situated in the Brazilian Amazon region. The sample included 253 individuals of both sexes aged between 10 and 60 years. The disease was predominant in 63.64% (161/253) adult males. The most affected age group was 20 to 29 years old, with 30% (76/253). About 84.6% did not complete high school, while 29.6% (75/253) of the cases had not finished the first degree. Concerning the environmental aspect, negative correlation was observed between rainfall and the incidence of P. vivax malaria (p=0.0026). In terms of mobility, there was a considerable influx of migrants from the states of Pará and Maranhão, with 55.73% (141/253). Lastly, the data indicated that 31.23% (79/253) of malaria cases were imported from French Guiana. In summary, the transmission of malaria in these particular borders involved ecological, environmental, biological and social factors, which are expressed in the high social vulnerability of the population living and circulating in the border zone, favoring the occurrence of outbreaks and the maintenance of the disease.

Asymptomatic plasmodium infection in a residual malaria transmission area in the atlantic forest region: implications for elimination

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Elimination of malaria in areas of interrupted transmission warrants careful case assessment to avoid the reintroduction of this disease. Occasional malaria cases are reported among visitors of the Atlantic Forest area of Brazil, while data on residents of this area are scarce. METHODS: A sectional study was carried out to examine 324 individuals living in a municipality where autochthonous cases were detected. RESULTS: Asymptomatic Plasmodium infections were detected in 2.8% of the individuals by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), with one case of P. falciparum (0.3%), two cases of P. vivax (0.6%), and six cases of P. malariae (1.9%). The thick blood smears were negative in all individuals. Serological tests performed in 314 subjects were reactive in 11.1%, with 3.5% for P. falciparum and 7.7% for P. vivax. A subsample of 42 reactive individuals for any Plasmodium species showed P. malariae in 30.9% of specimens. Individuals who entered the Atlantic Forest region were 2.7 times more likely to exhibit reactive serology for P. vivax compared with individuals who did not enter this region (p<0.05). Children <15 years had a higher chance of reactive serology for P. falciparum and P. vivax than individuals ≥15 years of age (p<0.05). Individuals living in the Paraiso district had a higher chance of reactive serology for P. vivax compared to other districts (p<0.05). No associations were found between sex, past exposure to malaria, or serological response to antibodies of any Plasmodium species. CONCLUSIONS: The implications of these results for the elimination of malaria were discussed.

Malaria in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, an Atlantic Forest area: an assessment using the health surveillance service

The lethality of malaria in the extra-Amazonian region is more than 70 times higher than in Amazonia itself. Recently, several studies have shown that autochthonous malaria is not a rare event in the Brazilian southeastern states in the Atlantic Forest biome. Information about autochthonous malaria in the state of Rio de Janeiro (RJ) is scarce. This study aims to assess malaria cases reported to the Health Surveillance System of the State of Rio de Janeiro between 2000-2010. An average of 90 cases per year had parasitological malaria confirmation by thick smear. The number of malaria notifications due to Plasmodium falciparum increased over time. Imported cases reported during the period studied were spread among 51% of the municipalities (counties) of the state. Only 35 cases (4.3%) were autochthonous, which represents an average of 3.8 new cases per year. Eleven municipalities reported autochthonous cases; within these, six could be characterised as areas of residual or new foci of malaria from the Atlantic Forest system. The other 28 municipalities could become receptive for transmission reintroduction. Cases occurred during all periods of the year, but 62.9% of cases were in the first semester of each year. Assessing vulnerability and receptivity conditions and vector ecology is imperative to establish the real risk of malaria reintroduction in RJ.

Malaria in Brazil: what happens outside the Amazonian endemic region

Brazil, a country of continental proportions, presents three profiles of malaria transmission. The first and most important numerically, occurs inside the Amazon. The Amazon accounts for approximately 60% of the nation’s territory and approximately 13% of the Brazilian population. This region hosts 99.5% of the nation’s malaria cases, which are predominantly caused by Plasmodium vivax (i.e., 82% of cases in 2013). The second involves imported malaria, which corresponds to malaria cases acquired outside the region where the individuals live or the diagnosis was made. These cases are imported from endemic regions of Brazil (i.e., the Amazon) or from other countries in South and Central America, Africa and Asia. Imported malaria comprised 89% of the cases found outside the area of active transmission in Brazil in 2013. These cases highlight an important question with respect to both therapeutic and epidemiological issues because patients, especially those with falciparum malaria, arriving in a region where the health professionals may not have experience with the clinical manifestations of malaria and its diagnosis could suffer dramatic consequences associated with a potential delay in treatment. Additionally, because the Anopheles vectors exist in most of the country, even a single case of malaria, if not diagnosed and treated immediately, may result in introduced cases, causing outbreaks and even introducing or reintroducing the disease to a non-endemic, receptive region. Cases introduced outside the Amazon usually occur in areas in which malaria was formerly endemic and are transmitted by competent vectors belonging to the subgenus Nyssorhynchus (i.e., Anopheles darlingi, Anopheles aquasalis and species of the Albitarsis complex). The third type of transmission accounts for only 0.05% of all cases and is caused by autochthonous malaria in the Atlantic Forest, located primarily along the southeastern Atlantic Coast. They are caused by parasites that seem to be (or to be very close to) P. vivax and, in a less extent, by Plasmodium malariae and it is transmitted by the bromeliad mosquito Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii. This paper deals mainly with the two profiles of malaria found outside the Amazon: the imported and ensuing introduced cases and the autochthonous cases. We also provide an update regarding the situation in Brazil and the Brazilian endemic Amazon.

Situação da malária na tríplice fronteira entre Brasil, Colômbia e Peru / Malaria in the triple border region between Brazil, Colombia and Peru / La malaria en la triple frontera entre Brasil, Colombia y Perú

O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a situação da vigilância da malária na tríplice fronteira entre Brasil, Colômbia e Peru. É um estudo qualitativo com aplicação de questionários em cidades da fronteira realizado em 2011. Os resultados foram analisados pela metodologia DOFA e apontaram diferenças significativas entre os sistemas de vigilância da malária na fronteira. Observou-se como debilidades a desarticulação entre atores responsáveis, a insuficiência de pessoal treinado, a alta rotatividade das equipes e a falta de médicos especialistas em malária nos hospitais locais. Verificou-se ainda o desconhecimento sobre a malária e suas formas de prevenção na população entrevistada. As fortalezas são a inserção de novos atores institucionais, a melhora da qualificação profissional, a distribuição de mosquiteiros impregnados e possibilidades de complementaridade entre os sistemas de vigilância a serem aproveitadas pela cooperação entre as equipes de saúde da fronteira, pois o controle da malária só pode ter sucesso tomando-se esta região em seu conjunto.

This article aims to analyze the malaria surveillance situation on the triple border between Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. This was a qualitative study using questionnaires in the border towns in 2011. The results were analyzed with the SWOT matrix methodology, pointing to significant differences between the malaria surveillance systems along the border. Weaknesses included lack of linkage between actors, lack of trained personnel, high turnover in teams, and lack of malaria specialists in the local hospitals. The study also showed lack of knowledge on malaria and its prevention in the local population. The strengths are the inclusion of new institutional actors, improvement of professional training, distribution of insecticide-treated bed nets, and possibilities for complementary action between surveillance systems through cooperation between health teams on the border. Malaria control can only be successful if the region is dealt with as a whole.

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la situación de la vigilancia de la malaria en la triple frontera entre Brasil, Colombia y Perú. Se trata de un estudio cualitativo con cuestionarios en las ciudades fronterizas, llevado a cabo en 2011. Los resultados se analizaron mediante la metodología DOFA y mostraron diferencias significativas entre los sistemas de vigilancia de la malaria en la frontera. Se observaron debilidades como una desconexión entre el personal responsable y capacitado insuficientemente, la alta rotación de personal y la falta de médicos expertos en malaria en los hospitales locales. También hubo falta de conocimiento sobre la malaria y su prevención en la población entrevistada. Los puntos fuertes son la inclusión de nuevos actores institucionales, la mejora de la cualificación del personal, la distribución de mosquiteros impregnados y oportunidades de complementariedad entre los sistemas de vigilancia para que fueran disfrutados cooperativamente entre los equipos de salud de la frontera, porque el control de la malaria sólo puede tener éxito mediante la adopción de medidas de esta índole.

Evaluation of three different DNA extraction methods from blood samples collected in dried filter paper in Plasmodium subpatent infections from the Amazon region in Brazil / Avaliação de três métodos de extração de DNA obtidos de amostras de sangue coletadas em papel de filtro em infecções subpatentes de Plasmodium da região Amazônica no Brasil

Asymptomatic Plasmodium infection is a new challenge for public health in the American region. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the best method for diagnosing subpatent parasitemias. In endemic areas, blood collection is hampered by geographical distances and deficient transport and storage conditions of the samples. Because DNA extraction from blood collected on filter paper is an efficient method for molecular studies in high parasitemic individuals, we investigated whether the technique could be an alternative for Plasmodium diagnosis among asymptomatic and pauciparasitemic subjects. In this report we compared three different methods (Chelex®-saponin, methanol and TRIS-EDTA) of DNA extraction from blood collected on filter paper from asymptomatic Plasmodium-infected individuals. Polymerase chain reaction assays for detection of Plasmodium species showed the best results when the Chelex®-saponin method was used. Even though the sensitivity of detection was approximately 66% and 31% for P. falciparum and P. vivax, respectively, this method did not show the effectiveness in DNA extraction required for molecular diagnosis of Plasmodium. The development of better methods for extracting DNA from blood collected on filter paper is important for the diagnosis of subpatent malarial infections in remote areas and would contribute to establishing the epidemiology of this form of infection.

Infecção assintomática por Plasmodium é um novo desafio para a saúde pública no Brasil. A reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) é o melhor método para detectar baixas parasitemias presentes em pacientes com infecção assintomática. Nas áreas endêmicas, a coleta de sangue total é dificultada pela distancia geográfica, transporte e adequada armazenagem das amostras. A coleta de sangue em papel de filtro pode ser uma alternativa nessas áreas de difícil acesso. Neste estudo foram comparados três diferentes métodos de extração de ADN a partir de papel de filtro usando como controle extração a partir de sangue total. O protocolo Chelex®-Saponina foi o que obteve o melhor resultado quando comparado com os outros três protocolos. No entanto a sensibilidade foi de 66,7% para o P. falciparum e 31,6% para o P. vivax. Conclui-se que em caso de infecção assintomática o papel de filtro não é ainda uma boa alternativa para coleta de amostras.

Primary health care in municipalities at high risk for malaria / Atenção primária à saúde em municípios de alto risco para malária / Atención primaria a la salud en municipios de alto riesgo para malaria

This study aims to characterize aspects of Primary Health Care in the Amazon Region of Brazil, considered as the main endemic area for malaria in the country. The Ministry of Health recommends the expansion of Primary Health Care in endemic areas for malaria. A survey focusing on patients infected with malaria was conducted in 6 municipalities, in January and February 2007, to investigate specific aspects of Primary Health Care. Data was analyzed quantitatively and field records helped to give support to context and policy issues in the visited sites. Quality of access to health services and medicines, continuity of health care, system coordination and community orientation are still incipient in the visited areas. The study showed that there is little integration between Primary Health Care and malaria control in the region, which calls for development of joint strategies and for the strengthening of Primary Health Care per se, as a benefit to the population of this endemic area.

Neste estudo pretendeu-se caracterizar aspectos da Atenção Básica, na região da Amazônia Legal, principal área endêmica para malária, no Brasil. O Ministério da Saúde recomenda a expansão da Atenção Básica nas áreas malarígenas. Foi realizado inquérito transversal, aplicado aos portadores de malária, em 6 municípios, durante os meses de janeiro e fevereiro de 2007. Os dados coletados foram tabulados e analisados, utilizando-se técnicas quantitativas. Registros de campo auxiliaram na composição das impressões do contexto dessas políticas nos locais pesquisados. A qualidade do acesso a consultas e medicamentos, o vínculo com os profissionais e com as Unidades Básicas de Saúde, o sistema de referência e contrarreferência, e a abordagem familiar e comunitária da saúde pelos profissionais, nos municípios do estudo, ainda são deficientes nesse nível de atenção. Há baixa integração entre o Programa Nacional de Controle de Malária e a Atenção Básica, de modo geral.

Este estudio pretende caracterizar aspectos de la Atención Básica en la región de la Amazonia Legal, principal área endémica para malaria en Brasil. El Ministerio de la Salud recomienda la expansión de la Atención Básica en las áreas afectada por la malaria. Fue realizado una encuesta transversal aplicada a los portadores de malaria en 6 municipios, durante los meses de enero y febrero de 2007. Los datos recolectados fueron tabulados y analizados utilizando técnicas cuantitativas. Registros de campo auxiliaron en la composición de las impresiones del contexto de estas políticas en los locales investigados. La calidad del acceso a consultas y medicamentos, el vínculo con los profesionales y con las Unidades Básicas de Salud, el sistema de referencia y contra-referencia y el abordaje familiar y comunitario de la salud por los profesionales en los municipios del estudio también son deficientes en este nivel de atención. Existe una baja integración entre el Programa Nacional de Control de Malaria y la Atención Básica de un modo general.

Efeito de ação educativa participativa no conhecimento de professores do ensino básico sobre malária / Effect of a participatory educational program on primary school teachers' knowledge of malaria / Efecto de acción educativa participativa en el conocimiento de profesores de enseñanza primaria sobre malaria

OBJETIVO: Descrever uma estratégia educativa participativa de construção de conhecimentos relacionados à malária entre professores em um município altamente endêmico. MÉTODOS: Foi feito um estudo observacional. Um curso de 40 horas foi realizado sob enfoque multidisciplinar e problematizador para 46 professores, prioritariamente da área rural, no município de Barcelos, AM, em 2008. O processo educativo participativo incluiu oficinas e aulas práticas. Para investigar os conhecimentos, aplicou-se um questionário previamente validado, antes e após o curso, avaliado por abordagens quantitativa e qualitativa usando a análise temática para respostas abertas. RESULTADOS: Previamente ao curso, os professores tinham pouca informação sobre os mecanismos de transmissão, meios de prevenção e a associação da malária aos seus vetores, bem como conceitos restritos sobre saúde. Após o curso, não somente aumentou o conhecimento dos professores sobre a malária como também emergiram reflexões sobre o papel do professor na sociedade. CONCLUSÕES: O efeito da ação educativa na construção de um saber contextualizado sobre malária e saúde indica o potencial da estratégia desenvolvida. Processos de educação permanente são necessários à sustentabilidade dos novos saberes e práticas, orientados pela promoção da saúde.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a participatory educational program for building up knowledge on malaria among primary school teachers in a highly endemic city. METHODS: An observational study was conducted. A 40-hour course with a multidisciplinary and problematizing approach was held in 2008, including 46 teachers mainly from rural areas of the city of Barcelos, Northern Brazil. The participatory educational process was comprised of workshops and practical classes. A previously validated questionnaire was applied before and after the course to assess teachers' knowledge and subsequently analyzed using qualitative and quantitative approaches and open-response thematic analysis. RESULTS: Prior to the course, teachers had little information about the transmission mechanisms, means of prevention, and the association between malaria and its vectors, and their health concepts were limited. After the course, teachers' knowledge of malaria increased and they reflected on their role in society. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of the educational program on the construction of contextualized knowledge of malaria and health indicates the potential of the strategy developed. Continuing education processes are required for the maintenance of new knowledge and practices directed towards health promotion.

OBJETIVO: Describir una estrategia educativa participativa para construción de conocimientos relacionados con la malaria entre profesores en un municipio altamente endémico. MÉTODOS: Fue realizado un estudio observacional. Un curso de 40 horas fue realizado bajo el enfoque multidisciplinario y problematizador para 46 profesores, prioritariamente del área rural, en el municipio de Barcelos, Norte de Brasil, en 2008. El proceso educativo participativo incluyó talleres y aulas prácticas. Para investigar los conocimientos, un cuestionario previamente validado fue aplicado antes y después del curso y analizado por abordajes cuantitativa y cualitativa usando el análisis temático para respuestas abiertas. RESULTADOS: Previamente al curso, los profesores tenían poca información sobre los mecanismos de transmisión, medios de prevención y la asociación de la malaria con sus vectores, así como conceptos restringidos sobre salud. Posterior al curso, no solamente aumentó el conocimiento del profesor sobre la malaria, sino que también emergieron reflexiones sobre el papel del profesor en la sociedad. CONCLUSIONES: El efecto de la acción educativa en la construcción de un saber contextualizado sobre malaria y salud indica el potencial de la estrategia desarrollada. Procesos de educación permanente son necesarios para la sustentabilidad de los nuevos saberes y prácticas orientados por la promoción de la salud.