Interoception, alexithymia, and anxiety among individuals with alcohol use disorder.

Background: Interoception (i.e., the ability to recognize bodily signals), alexithymia (i.e., the inability to recognize emotional states) and negative affect (i.e., unpleasant feelings such as anxiety) have been associated with alcohol use disorder (AUD). Previous research suggests that interoception may underlie alexithymia, which in turn may be associated with negative affectivity. However, this remains to be empirically tested. This study investigates whether alexithymia mediates the association between interoception and anxiety and whether this association differs across individuals with AUD and a healthy control (HC) comparison group. Methods: The AUD group consisted of 99 participants enrolled in an 8-week abstinence-based inpatient treatment program. The HC group included 103 healthy individuals. The heartbeat counting task (HCT) was used to assess interoception (cardiac interoceptive accuracy). The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) was used to assess alexithymia. The Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) was used to assess anxiety. Results: The moderated mediation model with interoception as the predictor, alexithymia as the mediator, and negative affect (i.e., state anxiety) as the dependent variable was tested. The analysis showed that the conditional indirect effect of interoception on anxiety via alexithymia was significant for individuals with AUD [ab = -0.300, bootstrap 95% CI = (-0.618, -0.088)], as well as for HCs [ab = -0.088, bootstrap 95% CI = (-0.195, -0.014)]; however, the conditional indirect effect significantly differed across HCs and individuals with AUD. Namely, the mediated effect was greater among individuals with AUD compared to the HC group. Conclusion: The results suggests that interoceptive impairment contributes to greater negative affect (i.e., state anxiety) via alexithymia especially for individuals with AUD. Improving emotion recognition via therapeutic methods focused on strengthening interoceptive abilities could improve outcomes for individuals receiving treatment for AUD.

Abnormal behavioral and neural responses in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during emotional interference for cognitive control in pedophilic sex offenders.

Studies within the last decade have reported neural and behavioral differences in cognitive control between men with the pedophilic disorder who commit (CSO+) and do not commit (CSO-) child sexual abuse. Prior studies reported a higher number of errors in Go/Nogo task and lower activity of the prefrontal cortex in NoGo trials, in CSO+ compared with CSO-. Moreover, negative mood was reported as a risk factor for child sexual abuse in pedophilic men. We aimed to examine differences in brain function and behavior between CSO+ and CSO- patients regarding emotional interference on cognitive processes and inhibition. We recruited CSO+ (n = 11) and CSO- (n = 14) patients as well as matched healthy controls (HC) (n = 17). Participants performed the affective Go/NoGo task in a block-design functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment. The task comprised the following four conditions: Negative Go, including only Go stimuli and negatively valenced pictures; Negative NoGo, including 50% of Go and 50% of NoGo trials as well as negatively valenced pictures; and two corresponding conditions with neutral pictures. Brain analysis was restricted to the dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC), orbitofrontal, and anterior cingulate cortices. The HC and CSO- groups, but not the CSO+ group, showed significantly slower reactions in negative blocks compared with neutral blocks. Brain analysis revealed increased activation in the right DLPFC during emotional interference contrast (Negative > Neutral) in the HC and CSO- groups; however, there was decreased activation in the CSO+ group. In the CSO+ group, negative distractors did not increase cognitive control processes, which was observed in the CSO- and HC groups at the behavioral and neural levels. These results support previous reports indicating offender status is associated with cognitive and emotional impairments.

Psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Self-Pluralism Scale (SPS).

BACKGROUND: The Self-Pluralism Scale (SPS) measures the declared degree of self-pluralism, visible already in William James's works. Self-pluralism refers to the degree to which one perceives oneself as typically feeling, behaving, and being different, in different situations, and at different times. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the SPS. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE: A total of 1747 participants (67% were women) between the ages of 15 and 70 years completed the SPS along with measures of self-concept inconsistency, self-concept differentiation, dissociative experiences, internal dialogical activity, personality, and social desirability. RESULTS: Internal reliability and test-retest reliability were high. The full version has too low indices of fit whereas the brief, 10-item version fits the data well. As indicators of the convergent validity, a positive correlation of SPS with self-concept inconsistency, self-concept differentiation, dissociative experiences, internal dialogical activity and neuroticism and a negative correlation with agreeableness and social desirability were found. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the brief, 10-item version is more valid than the full, 30-item version. The tool may be used for scientific research concerning self-pluralism. After collecting data from a sample that would allow norms to be constructed, the tool may also be useful for individual diagnosis.

Alcohol use and interoception - A narrative review.

Interoception, defined as the ability to perceive and interpret body signals, may play an important role in alcohol use disorder (AUD). Earlier studies suggested an association between interoception impairment and known risk factors for AUD (e.g., alexithymia, emotion dysregulation, impulsivity, pain). Neurobiological studies show that the neurotoxicity of alcohol affects various elements of the interoceptive system (especially the insula) at structural and functional levels, with differential short/long term impacts. Conversely, primary interoceptive impairments may promote alcohol consumption and foster the evolution towards addiction. Despite convincing evidence demonstrating that interoception impairment may be an important contributor to the development and course of AUD, only a few studies directly evaluated interoceptive abilities in AUD. The research shows that interoceptive accuracy, the objective component of interoception, is lower in AUD individuals, and is correlated with craving and emotion dysregulation. Interoceptive sensibility is in turn higher in AUD individuals compared to healthy controls. Moreover, there is evidence that therapy focused on improving the ability to sense signals from the body in addiction treatment is effective. However, important methodological limitations in interoceptive measures persist, and it is therefore necessary to further investigate the associations between interoception and AUD.

Pain Sensitivity, Negative Affect, and Alcohol Use Disorder Status: A Moderated Mediation Study of Emotion Dysregulation.

Previous work suggests that the association between pain and emotional processes among individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) may differ from healthy controls. This study investigates whether pain sensitivity mediates the association between negative affect and emotional dysregulation and whether this association differs across AUD status using moderated mediation. The sample included 165 individuals diagnosed with AUD and 110 healthy controls. Of interest was pain sensitivity, as assessed with the Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire, negative affect, as assessed with the Beck Depression Inventory, and emotional dysregulation, as assessed with the Difficulties in Emotional regulation Scale. Age, biological sex, and current pain severity were included as covariates. The results support a moderated partial mediation model that explained 44% of the variance in emotional dysregulation. The findings indicate that negative affect is related to higher pain sensitivity across groups. Moreover, pain sensitivity partially mediated the association between negative affect and emotional dysregulation, but in opposite directions depending on AUD status. Among healthy controls, greater pain sensitivity was related to better emotional regulation, while greater pain sensitivity led to greater emotional dysregulation among individuals with AUD. The potential parallels in the underlying neurobiological mechanisms of emotionality, pain, and AUD suggest that interventions targeting pain may improve adaptive affect regulation skills, which in turn could reduce negative affect and its effect on pain sensitivity among individuals with AUD.

The synergistic effect between interoceptive accuracy and alcohol use disorder status on pain sensitivity.

BACKGROUND: Interoceptive accuracy and pain sensitivity are both risk factors in the development of alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, the synergistic association between these two factors has not been investigated in an AUD sample. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate whether the association between interoceptive accuracy and sensitivity to pain differed across AUD status. METHODS: The study group included 165 individuals diagnosed with AUD (88.1% men) and 110 healthy controls (HCs; 74.5% men). Interoceptive accuracy was assessed with the Schandry Task. The Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire was utilized to measure sensitivity to pain. Anxiety, biological sex, and age were included as covariates in a model examining the role of AUD status as a moderator in the association between interoceptive accuracy and pain sensitivity. RESULTS: A significant interaction was found between interoceptive accuracy and AUD status (b = -4.580, 95% CI = [-8.137, -1.022], p = 0.012, ΔR2 = 0.032). Findings indicate that interoceptive accuracy was negatively associated with pain sensitivity among individuals with AUD, while there was a trend for an opposite association among healthy controls. CONCLUSION: We hypothesize that persistent alcohol drinking may contribute to disruption of the normative association between interoception and pain. Future studies should be conducted to develop knowledge on this association and to investigate its possible therapeutic significance and implications.

Childhood Trauma, Emotion Regulation, and Pain in Individuals With Alcohol Use Disorder.

Introduction: Several studies have confirmed that the experience of childhood trauma, poor emotion regulation, as well as the experience of physical pain may contribute to the development and poor treatment outcomes of alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, little is known about how the joint impact of these experiences may contribute to AUD. Objectives: To analyze associations between childhood trauma, emotion regulation, and pain in individuals with AUD. Methods: The study sample included 165 individuals diagnosed with AUD. The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) was used to investigate different types of trauma during childhood (physical, emotional, and sexual abuse and neglect), the Brief Symptom Inventory was used to assess anxiety symptoms, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) was used to assess emotional dysregulation, and the Pain Resilience Scale and Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire were used to measure self-reported pain tolerance and sensitivity. Results: Childhood emotional abuse (CTQ subscale score) was positively associated with anxiety, anxiety was positively associated with emotional dysregulation, and emotional dysregulation was negatively associated with pain tolerance. Accordingly, there was support for a significant indirect negative association between childhood emotional abuse and pain tolerance. The serial mediation statistical procedure demonstrated that anxiety and emotional dysregulation mediated the effect of childhood emotional abuse on pain resilience among individuals with AUD. Conclusions: Targeting emotional dysregulation and physical pain that can result from childhood trauma may have particular therapeutic utility among individuals treated for AUD.

Childhood trauma, alexithymia, and mental states recognition among individuals with alcohol use disorder and healthy controls.

BACKGROUND: Although prior work indicates a link between childhood trauma, alexithymia, and mental states recognition, empirical support is limited. Moreover, findings based on adult samples are mixed. Previous studies demonstrate that childhood trauma might either enhance, preserve, or reduce mental states recognition in selected at-risk populations. The current study investigates whether alcohol use disorder (AUD) status moderates the association between childhood trauma, alexithymia, and mental states recognition in a treatment-seeking AUD sample and non-AUD healthy adults. METHODS: Data comes from 255 individuals participating in an ongoing project that compares emotional and behavioral functioning of patients treated in an inpatient setting for AUD and a comparison sample of 172 healthy controls (HCs). Mental states recognition was measured using a computerized version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET). The presence of childhood trauma was assessed with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Alexithymia was measured with the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Demographic information, as well as alcohol drinking and psychopathological symptoms were assessed. A moderated mediation model was estimated whereby alexithymia was included as a mediator in the association between childhood trauma and RMET performance, with AUD diagnosis status moderating the link between alexithymia and RMET performance. RESULTS: Findings provide support for moderated mediation. Childhood emotional trauma impacted negative mental states recognition performance via difficulty describing feelings, but only among HCs (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the impact that AUD status has on the association between early life emotional trauma and difficulty describing feelings on individual differences in mental states recognition.

Familiarity with children improves the ability to recognize children's mental states: an fMRI study using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task and the Nencki Children Eyes Test.

Theory of mind plays a fundamental role in human social interactions. People generally better understand the mental states of members of their own race, a predisposition called the own-race bias, which can be significantly reduced by experience. It is unknown whether the ability to understand mental states can be similarly influenced by own-age bias, whether this bias can be reduced by experience and, finally, what the neuronal correlates of this processes are. We evaluate whether adults working with children (WC) have an advantage over adults not working with children (NWC) in understanding the mental states of youngsters. Participants performed fMRI tasks with Adult Mind (AM) and Child Mind (CM) conditions based on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test and a newly developed Nencki Children Eyes test. WC had better accuracy in the CM condition than NWC. In NWC, own-age bias was associated with higher activation in the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) in AM than in CM. This effect was not observed in the WC group, which showed higher activation in the pSTS and inferior frontal gyri in CM than in AM. Therefore, activation in these regions is required for the improvement in recognition of children's mental states caused by experience.

Priming With Childhood Constructs Influences Distance Perception.

The aim of our study was to examine whether priming adults with childhood constructs changes distance perception. Two alternative hypotheses could be derived: (1) The fundamental reference approach in visual perception of sizes and distances predicts that priming with childhood constructs should enlarge perceived distance (the world should be larger to a small observer); (2) and, conversely, the action-specific account of perception predicts that priming with childhood constructs should make distances seem shorter (a more physically active child should underestimate distances as more attainable). The results consistently support the second theory. Experiment 1 showed that being either explicitly or implicitly primed with childhood constructs decreased perceptions of distance as compared to that evaluated in the control groups. This effect was noticeable for long distances and only marginally significant for short distances. Also, this effect was not mediated by mood. Experiment 2 replicated the result of explicit priming with an additional control condition (baseline). The effect remained significant after controlling for the participants' evaluation of their childhood memories, tendency to relive memories from their childhood, having children, having a driver's license, and the participants' height.

Relationship Between Alcohol-related Family Adversity, Alcohol Use Across Adolescence, and Mental States Recognition in Young Adulthood.

OBJECTIVES: Although a theoretical link between childhood adversity and mental states recognition has been established, empirical findings are mixed. Some prior work indicates that childhood adversity might enhance, preserve, or reduce mentalization skills in selected at-risk populations. In the current study, we examine whether the presence of risky alcohol use during adolescence moderates the association between childhood alcohol-related family adversity and mental states recognition in young adulthood. METHODS: Secondary data analysis was conducted on 266 young adults who participated in the Michigan Longitudinal Study-a multiwave prospective study on at-risk youth. Children were assessed after initial recruitment (wave 1, target child age range 3-5 years), with assessments repeated every 3 years using parallel measures. The current study focuses on data spanning wave 2 (age range 7-9 years) through wave 6 (target child age range 18-21 years). A family adversity index was derived reflecting exposure to a maladaptive family environment during childhood as assessed at wave 1. An alcohol use risk factor was established reflecting early problem alcohol use during adolescence (target child age range 12-17 years). Mental states recognition was measured with a computerized version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET) at wave 6. Information about demographics, psychopathological symptoms, and IQ was obtained. The alcohol use risk factor was tested as a potential moderator of the association between childhood family adversity on RMET performance during young adulthood. RESULTS: Alcohol use risk moderated the relationship between childhood alcohol-related family adversity, and negative and neutral mental states recognition. Specifically, childhood family adversity was positively associated with neutral mental states recognition among participants high in alcohol risk (P = 0.03) and positively associated with negative mental states recognition among participants at average (P = 0.02) and high (P = 0.002) levels of alcohol risk. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that history of childhood adversity may actually improve young adult negative and neutral mental states recognition among those demonstrating high levels of risky alcohol use, as substance use may serve as an external self-regulatory tool. Clinical interventions that target enhancing metacognitive competence and emotion regulation could ultimately help to break the cycle of alcohol-related family adversity.

Returning to the present moment: Thinking about one's childhood increases focus on the hedonistic present.

Children seem to live more in the present moment than adults. But is it possible to make the present time perspective more available among adults? Four experiments demonstrated that activating childhood selves can lead adults to be more embedded in the hedonistic present. Studies 1 and 2 showed that recalling memories from childhood, either in an open-ended or a structured form, increased participants' focus on the hedonistic present. Study 3 showed that this effect also occurred after an implicit childhood manipulation. Study 4 revealed that taking the perspective of a child significantly increased orientation to the hedonistic present, compared to taking the perspective of an adult. The effects of activation of childhood selves were not mediated by mood, nostalgia, impatience, concentration, difficulty of the task, enjoyment connected with the task, or involvement in the task. Evaluation of one's childhood and tendency to relive childhood memories did not affect the results.

Association Between Interoception and Emotion Regulation in Individuals With Alcohol Use Disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Sensing body-related information includes interoceptive sensibility (the tendency to focus on internal body sensations) and accuracy (precision in perceiving real internal processes). Interoception and emotion regulation have both been linked to alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, the association between these factors have not been investigated within a clinical group of individuals with AUD. OBJECTIVES: The current study examines associations between emotion regulation and interoceptive accuracy and sensibility among individuals with AUD and healthy controls (HCs). METHODS: The sample comprised 165 individuals meeting criteria for AUD and 110 HCs. Interoceptive sensibility was assessed with a self-report measure (the Private Body Consciousness subscale) and interoceptive accuracy - with a behavioral measure (the Schandry test). Emotion regulation domains: non-acceptance of negative emotions, inability to engage in goal-directed behaviors when experiencing negative emotions, difficulties controlling impulsive behaviors when experiencing negative emotions, limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies, and lack of own emotional awareness and clarity were assessed with the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Associations between interoception and emotion regulation were assessed while controlling for sleep problems, depressive symptoms, age, and sex. RESULTS: Higher interoceptive accuracy was negatively associated with DERS subscale of non-acceptance of negative emotions in the AUD group (but not in the HC group). Higher interoceptive sensibility was significantly associated with problems in controlling impulsive behaviors when experiencing negative emotions. This association was moderated by symptoms of AUD. Higher interoceptive sensibility was associated with higher emotional awareness, but only in the HC group. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with AUD who are more interoceptively accurate may be more effective in regulating their emotions. On the other hand, individuals with AUD who are more interoceptively sensible, may have problems with controlling their behaviors while experiencing negative emotional states.

The association between impulsivity, emotion regulation, and symptoms of alcohol use disorder.

Emotion dysregulation and impulsivity are important factors influencing the development and course of alcohol dependence. However, few empirical studies investigate the association between different aspects of impulsivity (cognitive, attentional, behavioral), emotion regulation, and alcohol use disorder symptoms in the same model. The goal of this study was to assess the association between emotion regulation and different facets of impulsivity among patients with an alcohol use disorder and healthy controls. The sample was comprised of 273 individuals: 180 participants with an alcohol use disorder undergoing inpatient alcohol treatment and 93 healthy controls. Emotion regulation was assessed using the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test subscale. Impulsivity was assessed with Barratt's Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11). Statistical models tested both the BIS-11 total score, as well as three secondary factors (non-planning, attentional, and motor impulsivity). Findings indicate that individuals with alcohol use disorder symptoms were characterized by poor emotion regulation and high levels of impulsivity in all analyzed domains. Moreover, path analytic models indicated that after accounting for demographic factors (i.e., biological sex, age, education) there was evidence for a significant indirect effect of alcohol use disorder symptomatology on non-planning and attentional impulsivity via emotion regulation. There was no association between emotion regulation and motor impulsivity. These findings indicate the importance of targeting emotion regulation skills as well as behavioral control when treating patients with alcohol use disorder.

Relationships Between Components of Emotional Intelligence and Suicidal Behavior in Alcohol-dependent Patients.

OBJECTIVES: The importance of investigating various emotional skills in assessment of suicide risk in alcohol-dependent (AD) individuals has recently become the focus of increasing interest. The objective of this study was to explore the relationships between self-reported components of emotional intelligence and lifetime prevalence of suicide attempts in a clinical sample of AD subjects. METHODS: A group of 80 inpatients entering an alcohol treatment program in Warsaw, Poland, was recruited. Baseline information about demographics, psychopathological symptoms, personality, and severity of alcohol problems was obtained. The Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test was utilized for assessment of emotional processing. Lifetime history of suicide attempts was obtained from the MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview. RESULTS: After accounting for affect-related suicide risk factors (severity of depression, anxiety, neuroticism), and also other significant predictors (eg, age, sex, history of childhood abuse), mood regulation/optimism deficits remained a significant correlate of lifetime suicide attempts in AD patients. In the mediation models, mood regulation appeared to fully mediate the relationship between history of suicide attempts and depression, and also neuroticism. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study support the evidence that poor mood regulation might be related to the risk for suicidal behavior in AD individuals. These findings point towards the significance of addressing the issue of emotion-related skills in the therapy of those AD subjects who are at risk for suicide.

Interpersonal and intrapersonal emotional processes in individuals treated for alcohol use disorder and non-addicted healthy individuals.

INTRODUCTION: Prior work largely confirms the presence of various emotional processing deficits among individuals with an alcohol use disorder (AUD); however, their specificity and relevance still warrant investigation. The aim of the current study was to compare selected aspects of emotional processing (i.e., mental state recognition, alexithymia, and emotional intelligence) between individuals treated for an AUD and healthy individuals. METHODS: The AUD sample consisted of 92 abstinent men with AUD who were participating in an 8-week inpatient abstinence-based treatment program in Warsaw, Poland. The healthy control (HC) group consisted of 86 men recruited from the Medical University of Warsaw and the Nowowiejski Hospital administrative staff. Baseline information about demographics, psychopathological symptoms, and severity of alcohol problems was obtained. Mental states recognition was assessed using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET). Alexithymia was measured with the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). The Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) was used to measure emotional intelligence (EI). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: After accounting for potentially confounding variables (demographics, severity of depression, anxiety symptoms) in MANCOVA models, patients with AUD presented deficits in identification and description of their own emotional states, as well as lower emotion regulation skills when compared to HCs. No between-group differences were observed in self-reported recognition of other people's emotions, social skills, and a behavioral measure of mental states recognition. Specific rather than general emotion-processing deficits in participants with AUD were identified, suggesting problems with processing of intrapersonal emotional signals.

Relationships between components of emotional intelligence and physical pain in alcohol-dependent patients.

PURPOSE: Chronic pain is a significant comorbidity in individuals with alcohol dependence (AD). Emotional processing deficits are a substantial component of both AD and chronic pain. The aim of this study was to analyze the interrelations between components of emotional intelligence and self-reported pain severity in AD patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A sample of 103 participants was recruited from an alcohol treatment center in Warsaw, Poland. Information concerning pain level in the last 4 weeks, demographics, severity of current anxiety and depressive symptoms, as well as neuroticism was obtained. The study sample was divided into "mild or no pain" and "moderate or greater pain" groups. RESULTS: In the logistic regression model, across a set of sociodemographic, psychological, and clinical factors, higher emotion regulation and higher education predicted lower severity, whereas increased levels of anxiety predicted higher severity of self-reported pain during the previous 4 weeks. When the mediation models looking at the association between current severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms and pain severity with the mediating role of emotion regulation were tested, emotion regulation appeared to fully mediate the relationship between depression severity and pain, and partially the relationship between anxiety severity and pain. CONCLUSION: The current findings extend previous results indicating that emotion regulation deficits are related to self-reported pain in AD subjects. Comprehensive strategies focusing on the improvement of mood regulation skills might be effective in the treatment of AD patients with comorbid pain symptoms.

Spontaneous Movements of a Computer Mouse Reveal Egoism and In-group Favoritism.

The purpose of the project was to assess whether the first spontaneous movements of a computer mouse, when making an assessment on a scale presented on the screen, may express a respondent's implicit attitudes. In Study 1, the altruistic behaviors of 66 students were assessed. The students were led to believe that the task they were performing was also being performed by another person and they were asked to distribute earnings between themselves and the partner. The participants performed the tasks under conditions with and without distractors. With the distractors, in the first few seconds spontaneous mouse movements on the scale expressed a selfish distribution of money, while later the movements gravitated toward more altruism. In Study 2, 77 Polish students evaluated a painting by a Polish/Jewish painter on a scale. They evaluated it under conditions of full or distracted cognitive abilities. Spontaneous movements of the mouse on the scale were analyzed. In addition, implicit attitudes toward both Poles and Jews were measured with the Implicit Association Test (IAT). A significant association between implicit attitudes (IAT) and spontaneous evaluation of images using a computer mouse was observed in the group with the distractor. The participants with strong implicit in-group favoritism of Poles revealed stronger preference for the Polish painter's work in the first few seconds of mouse movement. Taken together, these results suggest that spontaneous mouse movements may reveal egoism (in-group favoritism), i.e., processes that were not observed in the participants' final decisions (clicking on the scale).

Research on Polish psychotherapists - what types of patients they work with and what methods of psychotherapy they use. / Badania polskich psychoterapeutów ­ z jakimi pacjentami pracuja i jakie stosuja metody psychoterapii.

OBJECTIVES: Most research studies conducted among psychotherapists concern (1) thefrequency of use of specific methods of work and (2) the categories of patients using the therapy. They have examined the relations between these two groups of variables to a lesser extent. Theprimary objective of this study was to determine what is the practice of Polish therapists in combining methods of working with diverse diagnoses of patients. METHODS: The study involved 1,838 therapists who declared that they conducted psychotherapy in Poland (80% women and 20% men). The subjects filled out, mostly via the Internet, a questionnaire consisting of questions whose scope related mainly to psychotherapeutic activities and preparation for its implementation. We used two groups of information from the survey: (1) the working methods used by the psychotherapists and (2) the categories of patients undergoing psychotherapy - extracted by types of reported problems and diagnoses. RESULTS: The research results revealed that three groups/classes of therapists can be extracted in Poland according to the way in which the therapists combine the working methods of psychotherapy with the categories of patients. It can be stated that a larger number of working methods used by the therapists is associated with how psychotherapy is conducted among different categories of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Polish psychotherapists: (1) use a large number of possible combinations of therapeutic methods; (2) can be described by belonging to one of three groups distinguished by the way they combine therapeuticmethods with the categories of patients they work with.