​Comparative genomics of Balto, a famous historic dog, captures lost diversity of 1920s sled dogs.

We reconstruct the phenotype of Balto, the heroic sled dog renowned for transporting diphtheria antitoxin to Nome, Alaska, in 1925, using evolutionary constraint estimates from the Zoonomia alignment of 240 mammals and 682 genomes from dogs and wolves of the 21st century. Balto shares just part of his diverse ancestry with the eponymous Siberian husky breed. Balto's genotype predicts a combination of coat features atypical for modern sled dog breeds, and a slightly smaller stature. He had enhanced starch digestion compared with Greenland sled dogs and a compendium of derived homozygous coding variants at constrained positions in genes connected to bone and skin development. We propose that Balto's population of origin, which was less inbred and genetically healthier than that of modern breeds, was adapted to the extreme environment of 1920s Alaska.

The Role of Central Complex Neurons in Prey Detection and Tracking in the Freely Moving Praying Mantis (Tenodera sinensis).

Complex tasks like hunting moving prey in an unpredictable environment require high levels of motor and sensory integration. An animal needs to detect and track suitable prey objects, measure their distance and orientation relative to its own position, and finally produce the correct motor output to approach and capture the prey. In the insect brain, the central complex (CX) is one target area where integration is likely to take place. In this study, we performed extracellular multi-unit recordings on the CX of freely hunting praying mantises (Tenodera sinensis). Initially, we recorded the neural activity of freely moving mantises as they hunted live prey. The recordings showed activity in cells that either reflected the mantis's own movements or the actions of a prey individual, which the mantises focused on. In the latter case, the activity increased as the prey moved and decreased when it stopped. Interestingly, cells ignored the movement of the other prey than the one to which the mantis attended. To obtain quantitative data, we generated simulated prey targets presented on an LCD screen positioned below the clear floor of the arena. The simulated target oscillated back and forth at various angles and distances. We identified populations of cells whose activity patterns were strongly linked to the appearance, movement, and relative position of the virtual prey. We refer to these as sensory responses. We also found cells whose activity preceded orientation movement toward the prey. We call these motor responses. Some cells showed both sensory and motor properties. Stimulation through tetrodes in some of the preparations could also generate similar movements. These results suggest the crucial importance of the CX to prey-capture behavior in predatory insects like the praying mantis and, hence, further emphasize its role in behaviorally and ecologically relevant contexts.

Context-dependent effects on attack and defense behaviors in the praying mantis Tenodera sinensis.

Most behavior needs to strike a balance between the competing needs to find food and protect an animal from predators. The factors that influence this balance and the resulting behavior are not well understood in many animals. Here, we examined these influences in the praying mantis Tenodera sinensis by presenting perching individuals with alternating sinusoidally moving prey-like stimuli and rapidly expanding looming stimuli then scoring their behavior on a defensive-aggressive scale. In this way, we tested the hypothesis that such behaviors are highly context dependent. Specifically, we found that defensive responses, which are normally very consistent, are decreased in magnitude if the animal has just performed an aggressive response to the previous sinusoid. A thrash behavior not normally seen with looming alone was often seen following aggression. In thrashing, the animal tries to push the looming stimulus away. Thrashing almost exclusively followed aggressive responses to the sinusoid stimulus. Moreover, aggression levels were found to shift from low to high and back to low as adult animals aged and, in general, female mantises were more aggressive than males. Finally, the specific nature of the mid-life spike in aggressive behaviors differed according to whether the animals were lab raised or caught in the wild. Lab-raised animals showed roughly equal amounts of increased attention to the stimulus and very aggressive strike behaviors, whereas wild-caught animals tended to either ignore the stimulus or react very aggressively with strikes. Therefore, our hypothesis regarding context-dependent effects was supported, with all four factors influencing the behaviors that were studied.

The evolution of startle displays: a case study in praying mantises.

Anti-predator defences are typically regarded as relatively static signals that conceal prey or advertise their unprofitability. However, startle displays are complex performances that deter or confuse predators and can include a spectacular array of movements, colours and sounds. Yet, we do not fully understand the mechanisms by which they function, their evolutionary correlates, or the conditions under which they are performed and evolve. Here, we present, to our knowledge, the first phylogenetically controlled comparative analyses of startle displays including behavioural data, using praying mantises as a model system. We included 58 species that provide a good representation of mantis diversity and estimated the strength of phylogenetic signal in the presence and complexity of displays. We also tested hypotheses on potential evolutionary correlates, including primary defences and body size. We found that startle displays and morphological traits were phylogenetically conserved, whereas behavioural traits were highly labile. Surprisingly, body size was not correlated with display presence or complexity in phylogenetically controlled analyses. Species-rich clades were more likely to exhibit displays, suggesting that startle displays were probably involved in lineage diversification. We suggest that to further elucidate the conditions under which startle displays evolve, future work should include quantitative descriptions of multiple display components, habitat type, and predator communities. Understanding the evolution of startle displays is critical to our overall understanding of the theory behind predator-prey dynamics.

A novel form of wasp mimicry in a new species of praying mantis from the Amazon rainforest, Vespamantoida wherleyi gen. nov. sp. nov. (Mantodea, Mantoididae).

A wasp mimicking praying mantis (Mantodea) of the early evolving Mantoididae family was discovered in 2013 at a research station near the Amazon River in Northern Peru. This adult specimen exhibited a striking bright red/orange and black coloration pattern that was undocumented in all known praying mantis species. We tested the status of this new specimen using external morphology, male genital dissections, and geographic distribution. Our findings demonstrate the specimen to represent a new species, Vespamantoida wherleyi gen. nov. sp. nov., that is closely allied with a recently described species, Mantoida toulgoeti Roy, 2010, both of which are included within the newly erected genus. To support our actions, we present high resolution images of museum preserved and living specimens, morphological illustrations, a generic-level distribution map, and recorded video of the behavior of the holotype taken in the field at the time of collection. The bright red/orange coloration contrasted with black markings, the general appearance of a hymenopteran that includes a narrowed wasp waist, and the locomotory patterns and antennal movements mark this newly discovered species as unique among all hymenopteran mimicking Mantoididae as well as all other praying mantises.

Anopheles mosquito surveillance in Madagascar reveals multiple blood feeding behavior and Plasmodium infection.

BACKGROUND: The Madagascar National Strategic Plan for Malaria Control 2018 (NSP) outlines malaria control pre-elimination strategies that include detailed goals for mosquito control. Primary surveillance protocols and mosquito control interventions focus on indoor vectors of malaria, while many potential vectors feed and rest outdoors. Here we describe the application of tools that advance our understanding of diversity, host choice, and Plasmodium infection in the Anopheline mosquitoes of the Western Highland Fringe of Madagascar. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We employed a modified barrier screen trap, the QUadrant Enabled Screen Trap (QUEST), in conjunction with the recently developed multiplex BLOOdmeal Detection Assay for Regional Transmission (BLOODART). We captured a total of 1252 female Anopheles mosquitoes (10 species), all of which were subjected to BLOODART analysis. QUEST collection captured a heterogenous distribution of mosquito density, diversity, host choice, and Plasmodium infection. Concordance between Anopheles morphology and BLOODART species identifications ranged from 93-99%. Mosquito feeding behavior in this collection frequently exhibited multiple blood meal hosts (single host = 53.6%, two hosts = 42.1%, three hosts = 4.3%). The overall percentage of human positive bloodmeals increased between the December 2017 and the April 2018 timepoints (27% to 44%). Plasmodium positivity was frequently observed in the abdomens of vectors considered to be of secondary importance, with an overall prevalence of 6%. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The QUEST was an efficient tool for sampling exophilic Anopheline mosquitoes. Vectors considered to be of secondary importance were commonly found with Plasmodium DNA in their abdomens, indicating a need to account for these species in routine surveillance efforts. Mosquitoes exhibited multiple blood feeding behavior within a gonotrophic cycle, with predominantly non-human hosts in the bloodmeal. Taken together, this complex feeding behavior could enhance the role of multiple Anopheline species in malaria transmission, possibly tempered by zoophilic feeding tendencies.

Predatory behavior changes with satiety or increased insulin levels in the praying mantis (Tenodera sinensis).

At any given moment, behavior is controlled by a combination of external stimuli and an animal's internal state. As physiological conditions change, vastly different behaviors might result from the same stimuli. For example, the motivation to hunt and hunting strategy are influenced by satiety. Here, we describe how sensory responsiveness and motor activity of a praying mantis (Tenodera sinensis) change as the insect feeds, leading to an altered hunting strategy. We further show that these changes can be induced by injection of insulin, which likely functions as a metabotropic indicator. Praying mantises directed their attention toward real and simulated prey less often as they fed and became sated. The range of distance and azimuth at which prey was detected decreased as did pursuit of prey, while opportunistic close-range attacks persisted. Together, these sensorimotor changes are indicative of a behavioral paradigm shift from 'pursuit' to 'ambush'. A similar effect was induced in starved praying mantises injected with 0.05 ml of 200 µg ml-1 bovine insulin. These experiments showed that insulin injection into the circulating hemolymph is sufficient to decrease prey orientation as well as in prey-directed locomotor behaviors (tracking and pursuit). The effects of prey consumption and insulin injection were similarly dose dependent. These results suggest that insulin is a signal of internal, physiological conditions that can modify responses to external stimuli. A change in hunting strategy thus results from coordinated effects of a neurohormone on a set of independent sensorimotor processes and the overall activity level of the animal.

Manual of praying mantis morphology, nomenclature, and practices (Insecta, Mantodea).

This study provides a comprehensive review of historical morphological nomenclature used for praying mantis (Mantodea) morphology, which includes citations, original use, and assignment of homology. All referenced structures across historical works correspond to a proposed standard term for use in all subsequent works pertaining to praying mantis morphology and systematics. The new standards are presented with a verbal description in a glossary as well as indicated on illustrations and images. In the vast majority of cases, originally used terms were adopted as the new standard. In addition, historical morphological topographical homology conjectures are considered with discussion on modern interpretations. A new standardized formulation to present foreleg femoral and tibial spines is proposed for clarity based on previous works. In addition, descriptions for methods of collection, curation, genital complex dissection, and labeling are provided to aid in the proper preservation and storage of specimens for longevity and ease of study. Due to the lack of consistent linear morphometric measurement practices in the literature, we have proposed a series of measurements for taxonomic and morphological research. These measurements are presented with figures to provide visual aids with homologous landmarks to ensure compatibility and comparability across the Order. Finally, our proposed method of pinning mantises is presented with a photographical example as well as a video tutorial available at http://mantodearesearch.com.

Response to "An exceptionally preserved 110 million years old praying mantis provides new insights into the predatory behaviour of early mantodeans".

Hörnig, Haug & Haug (2017) published a description of a new specimen of Santanmantis axelrodi MB.I.2068, an extinct species of praying mantis from the Crato Formation of Brazil. According to Hörnig, Haug & Haug (2017), the discovery of this new specimen brought with it implications for praying mantis character evolution and predatory behavior; it is with these lines of reasoning that we find fault. More specifically, we point to four flawed assumptions in their study that led to their unsubstantiated conclusion that S. axelrodi employed their mesothoracic legs in prey capture.

A Cretaceous-aged Palaeotropical dispersal established an endemic lineage of Caribbean praying mantises.

Recent phylogenetic advances have uncovered remarkable biogeographic histories that have challenged traditional concepts of dispersal, vicariance and diversification in the Greater Antilles. Much of this focus has centred on vertebrate lineages despite the high diversity and endemism of terrestrial arthropods, which account for 2.5 times the generic endemism of all Antillean plants and non-marine vertebrates combined. In this study, we focus on three Antillean endemic praying mantis genera, Callimantis, Epaphrodita and Gonatista, to determine their phylogenetic placement and geographical origins. Each genus is enigmatic in their relation to other praying mantises due to their morphological affinities with both Neotropical and Old World groups. We recovered the three genera as a monophyletic lineage among Old World groups, which was supported by molecular and morphological evidence. With a divergence at approximately 107 Ma, the lineage originated during the break-up of Gondwana. Ancestral range reconstruction indicates the lineage dispersed from an African + Indomalayan range to the Greater Antilles, with a subsequent extinction in the Old World. The profound ecomorphic convergence with non-Caribbean groups obscured recognition of natural relationships within the same geographical distribution. To the best of our knowledge, the lineage is one of the oldest endemic animal groups in the Greater Antilles and their morphological diversity and restricted distribution mark them as a critical taxon to conserve.

An elusive Neotropical giant, Hondurantemna chespiritoi gen. n. & sp. n. (Antemninae, Mantidae): a new lineage of mantises exhibiting an ontogenetic change in cryptic strategy.

We present the description of a new genus and new species of praying mantis, Hondurantemna chespiritoigen. n. & sp. n. This species of cryptic mantis, collected in National parks in Mexico and Honduras, remained unknown despite its considerable body size. Based on a phylogenetic analysis with molecular data and traditional morphological analysis, we place this new genus within Antemninae, a monotypic Mantidae subfamily. We update the subfamily concept for Antemninae and provide a key to the two genera. We describe the external morphology of immatures and adults of the new species as well as the genital complexes of both sexes and the ootheca of Antemna rapax. The observed morphological changes between immature and adult females suggests that the selection for an alternate strategy for crypsis is a response to size increase of the abdomen during development. Immatures exploit a stick/branch habitat based on their morphological appearance while adult females appear as a leaf to disguise the profile of the body.

ResumenSe presenta la descripción de un nuevo género y una nueva especie de mantis religiosa, Hondurantemna chespiritoigen. n. & sp. n. Esta nueva especie de mantis críptica, colectada en ciertos parques nacionales de México y Honduras, había permanecido hasta ahora desconocida para la ciencia a pesar de su gran tamaño corporal. Utilizando un análisis filogenético con datos moleculares y junto con análisis tradicional de morfología, se logró clasificar a este nuevo género dentro de la subfamilia monotípica Antemninae que pertenece a la familia Mantidae. Como resultado se actualiza el concepto taxonómico de Antemninae y se presenta una clave para identificar los dos géneros atribuidos a esta subfamilia. Se describe la morfología externa de los juveniles y adultos de la nueva especie, así como el complejo genital de ambos sexos y la ooteca de Antemna rapax. La diferencia morfológica observada entre juveniles y adultos sugiere que existen fuerzas selectivas divergentes, posiblemente en respuesta al aumento del tamaño del abdomen durante el desarrollo, para así mantener su camuflaje a lo largo de su ciclo de vida. Sobre la base de su apariencia general, los juveniles utilizarían una estrategia críptica asemejando ramas, mientras que las hembras adultas asemejan hojas verdes para ocultar el contorno corporal.

New record of a phoretic flea associated with earwigs (Dermaptera, Arixeniidae) and a redescription of the bat flea Lagaropsylla signata (Siphonaptera, Ischnopsyllidae).

Lagaropsylla signata (Wahlgren, 1903), previously known only from the Island of Java, Indonesia is redescribed and reported for the first time in Deer Cave, Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (west coast of Borneo). Many were found clinging to the earwig Arixenia esau Jordan, 1909. A similar account of a phoretic flea (Lagaropsylla turba Smit, 1958) on the same species of cave-dwelling earwig has been reported in peninsular Malaysia in a well-documented association with the hairless naked bulldog bat, Cheiromeles torquatus Horsfield, 1824. The association of Lagaropsylla signata with Arixenia esau is parallel to the evolution and co-existence with bats in Deer Cave just as in the case of Lagaropsylla turba, Arixenia esau, and Cheiromeles torquatus. The evidence suggests that Lagaropsylla turba and Lagaropsylla signata are obligate phoretic parasites whose survival depends on Arixenia esau to access a bat host. Arixenia esau is reported for the first time in Deer Cave and the occurrence of Lagaropsylla signata on the island of Borneo represented a new record, previously being found only on the island of Java. Images of Lagaropsylla signata attached to Arixenia esau are provided. Xeniaria jacobsoni (Burr, 1912), often associated with Arixenia esau in other geographical areas, was not present in the material examined from Deer Cave. The natural history of the earwig genera Arixenia Jordan, 1909 and Xeniaria Maa, 1974 are discussed and summarized relative to their associations with phoretic fleas and their bat hosts.

Selection for predation, not female fecundity, explains sexual size dimorphism in the orchid mantises.

Here we reconstruct the evolutionary shift towards floral simulation in orchid mantises and suggest female predatory selection as the likely driving force behind the development of extreme sexual size dimorphism. Through analysis of body size data and phylogenetic modelling of trait evolution, we recovered an ancestral shift towards sexual dimorphisms in both size and appearance in a lineage of flower-associated praying mantises. Sedentary female flower mantises dramatically increased in size prior to a transition from camouflaged, ambush predation to a floral simulation strategy, gaining access to, and visually attracting, a novel resource: large pollinating insects. Male flower mantises, however, remained small and mobile to facilitate mate-finding and reproductive success, consistent with ancestral male life strategy. Although moderate sexual size dimorphisms are common in many arthropod lineages, the predominant explanation is female size increase for increased fecundity. However, sex-dependent selective pressures acting outside of female fecundity have been suggested as mechanisms behind niche dimorphisms. Our hypothesised role of predatory selection acting on females to generate both extreme sexual size dimorphism coupled with niche dimorphism is novel among arthropods.

A new genus and species (Cornucollis gen. n. masoalensis sp. n.) of praying mantis from northern Madagascar (Mantodea, Iridopterygidae, Tropidomantinae).

An examination of Malagasy specimens accessed within the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris, France, produced a praying mantis (Insecta: Mantodea) of an undescribed genus and species. An investigation of the internal and external morphology, in addition to its collection locality, revealed that this specimen belongs to the Iridopterygidae subfamily Tropidomantinae. Furthermore, the specimen's unique combination of characters justified the creation of a new genus. Geographic distributional records and external morphological character evidence are presented for Cornucollis gen. n. masoalensis sp. n. We provide a dichotomous key of the Tropidomantinae and Nilomantinae genera distributed within Madagascar. High-resolution images, illustrations of morphological characters, natural history information, and measurement data are presented.

A survey of the praying mantises of Rwanda, including new records (Insecta, Mantodea).

We report the results of two surveys targeting praying mantises in four localities in Rwanda, specifically Akagera National Park, Nyungwe National Park, Volcanoes National Park, and the Arboretum de Ruhande at the National University of Rwanda. Using an assortment of collecting techniques, including metal halide light traps, sweep netting vegetation and general searching, we obtained 387 adult and 352 juvenile specimens, representing 41 species. A total of 28 novel species records for Rwanda are added to the 18 previously recorded species for the country, in addition to 20 novel species records for the broader region, including neighbouring Uganda and Burundi. This study provides high resolution images of the dorsal habitus of both sexes of representative species, both pinned and living. Species distribution records are presented and discussed. With a 155% increase in species recorded from Rwanda, this survey illustrates the need for further taxonomic work in the region.

Phylogeny of Dictyoptera: Dating the Origin of Cockroaches, Praying Mantises and Termites with Molecular Data and Controlled Fossil Evidence.

Understanding the origin and diversification of organisms requires a good phylogenetic estimate of their age and diversification rates. This estimate can be difficult to obtain when samples are limited and fossil records are disputed, as in Dictyoptera. To choose among competing hypotheses of origin for dictyopteran suborders, we root a phylogenetic analysis (~800 taxa, 10 kbp) within a large selection of outgroups and calibrate datings with fossils attributed to lineages with clear synapomorphies. We find the following topology: (mantises, (other cockroaches, (Cryptocercidae, termites)). Our datings suggest that crown-Dictyoptera-and stem-mantises-would date back to the Late Carboniferous (~ 300 Mya), a result compatible with the oldest putative fossil of stem-dictyoptera. Crown-mantises, however, would be much more recent (~ 200 Mya; Triassic/Jurassic boundary). This pattern (i.e., old origin and more recent diversification) suggests a scenario of replacement in carnivory among polyneopterous insects. The most recent common ancestor of (cockroaches + termites) would date back to the Permian (~275 Mya), which contradicts the hypothesis of a Devonian origin of cockroaches. Stem-termites would date back to the Triassic/Jurassic boundary, which refutes a Triassic origin. We suggest directions in extant and extinct species sampling to sharpen this chronological framework and dictyopteran evolutionary studies.

The type material of Mantodea (praying mantises) deposited in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, USA.

The collection of Mantodea of the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, includes 26 holotypes, 7 allotypes, 4 lectotypes, 23 paratypes, and 1 paralectotype. Four type specimens were designated as lectotypes within this work. Highly accurate measurement data, high resolution images of specimens and labels, verbatim label data, georeferenced coordinates, original and newly assigned database codes, and bibliographic data are presented for all primary types. Label data for all paratype specimens in the collection are provide in tabular form. The location of the USNM collection has been moved to the Cleveland Museum of Natural History as a loan under the Off-site Enhancement Program.

A new species of Dystacta Saussure, 1871 from Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda (Insecta, Mantodea, Dystactinae).

A recent targeted entomological survey in the Republic of Rwanda has produced two conspecific male and female specimens of an undescribed species of praying mantis (Mantodea). The specimens were collected in Nyungwe National Park in May of 2013. The species is closest morphologically to Dystacta alticeps (Schaum, 1853). Therefore, a new species is described, Dystacta tigrifrutex sp. n., along with the first instar nymphs and ootheca. In addition, the previously monotypic genus Dystacta Saussure, 1871 is re-described to provide a broader definition of the genus group. Habitus images, measurement data, a key to species, natural history information, and locality data are provided.

A case of the higher-level classification of praying mantises (Mantodea) obscuring the synonymy of Majangella Giglio-Tos, 1915 (Liturgusidae, Liturgusinae) and Ephippiomantis Werner, 1922 (Hymenopodidae, Acromantinae).

The praying mantis genus Majangella Giglio-Tos, 1915 is taxonomically treated with a re-description of the genus and the two included species, M. moultoni Giglio-Tos, 1915 and M. carli Giglio-Tos, 1915. The genus Ephippiomantis Werner, 1922 is newly determined to be the junior synonym of Majangella Giglio-Tos, 1915 based on morphology. The species for which the genus name Ephippiomantis was erected, E. ophirensis Werner, 1922, is re-described and now included within Majangella. This synonymy was determined herein as the direct result of erroneous higher-level placement of Majangella within the Majanginae by Giglio-Tos and was not recognized even after the genus was moved to within Liturgusidae. Action is now taken to move Majangella from within Liturgusidae to within the Hymenopodidae subfamily of Acromantinae, which is supported by morphological and molecular data. A key to the three species is provided along with habitus images, images of the head, pronotum, and foreleg, and illustrations of the male genitalia. Species distributions are presented and locality coordinates are provided in print as well as being available for download as a KML file viewable in Google Earth.