Consumer Awareness of Food Defense Measures at Food Delivery Service Providers and Food Manufacturers: Web-Based Consumer Survey Study.

BACKGROUND: Various stages of the food chain, from production to processing to distribution, can impact food safety. The concept of "food defense" has emerged as a countermeasure against intentional contamination of food with foreign substances. Although knowledge of food hygiene is common among consumers, there are currently no reports of consumer surveys on food defense. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to investigate consumer awareness of food defense and food safety. We analyzed the results focusing on how consumers behave when they find abnormalities in food to further our knowledge on promoting food defense measures. METHODS: Participants completed a web-based questionnaire that included items related to awareness of food safety and food defense, as well as actions to be taken in cases of food abnormalities, such as contamination by foreign substances, the presence of a bad smell in purchased food, and the inclusion of extra items not selected by the individual. The participants were asked to indicate their preference among the 5 suggested actions in each case using a 6-point Likert scale. Data analysis involved aggregating responses into binary values. Stepwise linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between selected actions and questionnaire items, such as sex, age, and personality. RESULTS: A total of 1442 respondents completed the survey, and the majority of participants placed importance on food safety when making food purchases. The recognition of each term was as follows: 95.2% (n=1373) for "food security and safety," 95.6% (n=1379) for "food hygiene," and 17.1% (n=247) for "food defense." The percentages of those who answered that they would "eat without worrying" in the case of "contamination by foreign substances," "bad smell," or "including unpurchased product" in the frozen food they purchased were 9.1% (n=131), 4.8% (n=69), and 30.7% (n=443), respectively. The results showed that contacting the manufacturer was the most common action when faced with contaminated food or food with a bad smell. Interestingly, a significant percentage of respondents indicated they would upload the issue on social networking sites. Logistic regression analysis revealed that male participants and the younger generation were more likely to choose the option of eating contaminated food without worrying. Additionally, the tendency to upload the issue on social networking sites was higher among respondents who were sociable and brand-conscious. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study indicate that if food intentionally contaminated with a foreign substance is sold and delivered to consumers, it is possible consumers may eat it and experience health problems. Therefore, it is crucial for not only food manufacturers but also food delivery service providers to consider food defense measures such as protecting food from intentional contamination. Additionally, promoting consumer education and awareness regarding food defense can contribute to enhancing food safety throughout the food chain.

Diet-Induced Thermogenesis and Expression Levels of Thyroid Hormone Target Genes and Their Products in Rats Differ between Meat Proteins.

We compared the effects of purified meat proteins on postprandial thermogenesis and on the secretion of and responsiveness to thyroid hormones (THs) in rats. Body temperatures at 2 h after feeding were significantly higher in the chicken and mutton protein groups than in the other groups, and these proteins seem to have a strong thermogenic effect. There were no significant differences in plasma TH concentrations among the groups, but levels of TH-responsive Spot 14 protein in the liver and brown adipose tissue were significantly higher in the chicken and mutton protein groups than in the other groups. Levels of malic enzyme 1 protein in the liver and brown adipose tissue were significantly higher in the chicken protein group than in the other groups except for the mutton protein group. Furthermore, levels of uncoupling protein 1 were higher in the chicken and mutton protein groups than in the other groups. The results suggest that the difference in postprandial thermogenesis of meat is strongly dependent on meat proteins; chicken and mutton proteins are strong promoters of postprandial thermogenesis, and THs may contribute to this effect. Since strong postprandial thermogenesis and high expression levels of TH target genes and their products were not observed in the amino acid group, chicken and mutton proteins or their digested peptides might contribute to these effects.

Effects of a chicken collagen hydrolysate on the circulation system in subjects with mild hypertension or high-normal blood pressure.

We investigated the effects of a chicken collagen hydrolysate (CCH) on the circulation system in humans. A total of 58 subjects with either mild hypertension (systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 140-159 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) 90-99 mmHg) or high-normal blood pressure (SBP 130-139 mmHg or DBP 85-89 mmHg) were assigned to two groups, one involving a placebo and the other, the test food (including CCH of 2.9 g/d). The parameters related to each subject's circulation system were monitored over the study period of 18 weeks. The Δbrachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV), an indicator of arterial stiffness and marker of vascular damage, was significantly lower in the test food group than in the placebo group during the treatment period. The blood pressure in the test food group was also significantly lower than that in the placebo group, while the serum nitrogen oxide was higher in the test food group after the treatment. These results suggest that CCH exerted modulatory effects on the human circulation system.

Postprandial thermic effect of chicken involves thyroid hormones and hepatic energy metabolism in rats.

We investigated the postprandial thermic effect of chicken and its mechanisms in rats. A chicken diet showed a strong thermic effect after consumption, and the removal of fat induced more rapid and stronger thermogenesis. Although thermogenesis induced by a purified chicken protein diet was also strong, the thermic reaction was not so rapid and a remarkable rise of peripheral temperatures was not observed. Defatted chicken and purified chicken protein activated the thyroid hormone system and up-regulated rate-limiting enzyme genes of glucose metabolism and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in the liver. Moreover, chicken protein up-regulated the mRNA expression of a rate-limiting enzyme of hepatic lipid metabolism. It is possible that the mechanisms by which body temperature is raised are different between chicken protein and defatted chicken. On the other hand, it is possible that chicken fat suppressed the expression of energy metabolism-related genes that was induced by the consumption of lean chicken. As a result, a rise of postprandial body temperature might not have been induced after consumption of chicken fat. These results suggest that the consumption of lean chicken activates the thyroid hormone system and hepatic energy metabolism and consequently induces the postprandial thermic effect of chicken.

Impacts of acute imipramine treatment on plasma and brain amino acid metabolism in mice given graded levels of dietary chicken protein.

Several studies have shown a relationship between depression and animal protein intake. To evaluate whether the difference of dietary chicken protein levels induces an antidepressant-like effect and potentiates acute antidepressant effects, three levels of dietary chicken protein were used as the representative animal protein with imipramine used as the antidepressant. In addition, the effects of dietary chicken protein on brain metabolism were evaluated. Open field test (OFT) and forced swimming test (FST) were conducted on the 27th and 28th days, respectively. OFT and FST were not influenced by both imipramine and dietary protein levels. However, characteristic effects of imipramine treatment on brain monoamine metabolism were observed in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus. In addition, dietary protein significantly increased taurine and L-ornithine levels even though these amino acids were not contained in the diets. In conclusion, the metabolism of several amino acids in the plasma and brain were altered by dietary chicken protein.

Dietary animal proteins alter monoamine metabolism in the brain.

Several amino acids have effects on mental function, including sedative, antidepressant-like and anxiolytic-like effects. However, the influence of integrated amino acid nutrition as protein constituents on mental function remains unclear. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to compare the influence of chicken, pork and beef protein extracts on brain monoamine metabolism in mice. Changes in monoamine levels and their turnover rates in the brain were induced by different protein sources. In particular, chicken protein group showed the highest norepinephrine levels in the hippocampus and hypothalamus, and beef protein extract caused an activation of the serotonergic system in the hypothalamus, although there were no significant differences in amino acid compositions of these protein extracts. Therefore, it was revealed that amino acid compositions in dietary protein did not induce alteration in monoamine metabolism. However, there were differences in small molecular peptides, such as creatine, carnosine and anserine levels in animal protein extracts. In conclusion, monoamine metabolism was altered by dietary protein sources. However, it was indicated that the alteration in monoamine metabolism may be independent from amino acid compositions in dietary protein. In addition, alteration in monoamine metabolism depending on the dietary protein sources may be induced by small molecular peptides.

Expression profiles of carnosine synthesis-related genes in mice after ingestion of carnosine or ß-alanine.

BACKGROUND: Carnosine is a dipeptide that improves exercise performance. The carnosine synthesis mechanism through carnosine and ß-alanine ingestion remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the tissue distribution of carnosine synthase, ATP-grasp domain-containing protein-1 (ATPGD1) mRNA, and ATPGD1 and carnosine specific dipeptidase (CN1) gene expression profiles in mice that were given carnosine or ß-alanine orally. METHODS: ddY mice (7-week-old) were randomly divided into three groups (n = 6 to 8 animals per group) and were orally given 2 g/kg body weight of carnosine, ß-alanine, or water. After 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, or 360 min of treatment, the tissues (brain, blood, liver, kidneys, olfactory bulbs, hindleg muscles) were collected. The obtained tissues measured the expression of ATPGD1 and CN1 genes using quantitative PCR methods. RESULTS: The ATPGD1 gene was expressed in muscle and to a lesser extent in brain. The expression of ATPGD1 in the vastus lateralis muscle increased significantly at 180 min (P = 0.023) after carnosine ingestion and 60 (P = 0.023) and 180 min (P = 0.025) after ß-alanine ingestion. Moreover, the carnosine group showed a significantly increased renal expression of the CN1 gene 60 min after ingestion (P = 0.0015). CONCLUSIONS: The ATPGD1 gene showed high expression levels in brain and muscle. The ß-alanine or carnosine administration significantly increased ATPGD1 and CN1 expression in mice.

Chicken collagen hydrolysate reduces proinflammatory cytokine production in C57BL/6.KOR-ApoEshl mice.

Effects of chicken collagen hydrolysate (CCH) on atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-deficient C57BL/6.KOR-ApoE(shl) mice were investigated in this paper. The mice were fed on either a normal CE-2 diet (control group) or a diet containing 10% CCH (CCH group) for 12 wk. Compared with that of the control, the amount of total plasma cholesterol, total hepatic cholesterol and hepatic triglycerides in the CCH group was reduced by 14.4, 24.7 and 42.8%, respectively. Histological analysis results showed that the abundance of diffuse hepatic lipid droplets and fat vacuoles was decreased in the CCH group. Meanwhile, the concentration of proinflammatory cytokines in the CCH group plasma, including interleukin-6 (IL-6), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), was downregulated by 43.4, 17.9 and 24.1%, respectively. The present results suggested that CCH treatment might help prevent atherosclerosis through not only its lipid-lowering effects but also inhibiting expression of inflammatory cytokines.

The bioavailable octapeptide Gly-Ala-Hyp-Gly-Leu-Hyp-Gly-Pro stimulates nitric oxide synthesis in vascular endothelial cells.

Gly-Ala-Hyp-Gly-Leu-Hyp-Gly-Pro (GAXGLXGP, X: Hyp), an octapeptide contained in chicken collagen hydrolysate, inhibits angiotensin I-converting enzyme activity in vitro. Intestinal Caco-2 and bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs) were used to investigate whether the transported GAXGLXGP improves vascular function. When GAXGLXGP was added to the apical side of Caco-2 monolayers, the intact form of GAXGLXGP was released to the basolateral side without incorporation into the cells. This transport was energy-independent but was associated with tight junction permeability. GAXGLXGP was then added to BAECs, and endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS) activation was examined. GAXGLXGP at a concentration of 10 microM stimulated production of NO during a 1 h incubation. This event involved phosphorylation of eNOS at Ser(1179) without a change in the total eNOS protein level. These findings indicate that GAXGLXGP absorbed intact through the intestinal epithelium has direct effects on eNOS activity in vascular endothelial cells, leading to NO synthesis, thereby suggesting the potential for improvement in vascular function.

Molecular size of collagen peptide reverses the permeability of Caco-2 cells.

Intestinal permeability to size-classified fish collagen peptides (FCPs) was examined using Caco-2 monolayers. Minimum-sized FCPs were most efficiently transported across the Caco-2 monolayers. Permeability depended on peptide size. It was independent of the H(+)-coupled peptide transport system but was associated with tight junction permeability, suggesting that the paracellular pathway is responsible for transepithelial transport of collagen peptides.

Chicken collagen hydrolysate protects rats from hypertension and cardiovascular damage.

We previously reported that chicken collagen hydrolysate (CCH) has strong angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity and antihypertensive effects on spontaneously hypertensive rats. Here, we investigated the chronic therapy effects of CCH on blood pressure and vascular relaxation in a cardiovascular damage model of Wistar-Kyoto rats induced by N-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME). Following co-treatment with CCH for 4 weeks, the increment of systolic blood pressure was suppressed significantly. At 8 weeks, the vasorelaxation of thoracic aorta increased significantly, and cardiovascular damage was ameliorated. The concentration of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in blood was reduced significantly by long-term administration of CCH, whereas the nitric oxide concentration was increased significantly at 1 hour post-treatment. The results suggest that beneficial effects of CCH result from antihypertensive function, but also from inhibition of cardiovascular damage to the endothelial cells via its ACE inhibitory activity and regulation of nitric oxide and ICAM-1, which suggests that CCH may be useful as a medicinal food for patients with cardiovascular disease.

Antihypertensive effects and endothelial progenitor cell activation by intake of chicken collagen hydrolysate in pre- and mild-hypertension.

Chicken collagen hydrolysate was given to 15 mildly hypertensive subjects for 4 weeks. Blood pressure was significantly decreased by 11.8 mmHg (P<0.01). A reduction in plasma renin activity was observed in blood test after intake. A colony assay of endothelial progenitor cells in blood samples from non-smokers revealed an approximately 30% increase in the number of colonies.

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lactobacillus casei suppress Escherichia coli-induced chemokine expression in intestinal epithelial cells.

BACKGROUND: Recently, some strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been reported to prevent the development of atopic dermatitis and to improve allergic symptoms, especially in young children. However, the mechanisms involved in these effects are not fully understood. Intestinal microbiota play critical roles in the development of host immune development and are recognized and regulated by the host through intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). We thus hypothesized that LAB influence the host immune system through the activation of IECs. To begin testing this hypothesis, chemokine expression in IECs exposed to intestinal bacteria was investigated. METHODS: Caco-2 cell monolayers were stimulated with different concentrations of various live or heat-killed intestinal bacteria or bacterial components for up to 3 h. Changes in the gene expressions of various chemokines were measured using quantitative real-time PCR. RESULTS: The expressions of CCL20, CXCL8, CXCL10 and CX3CL1 were strongly induced by nonpathogenic Escherichia coli in a dose-dependent manner and were partially induced by some commensal LAB. In contrast, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) and Lactobacillus casei did not induce these chemokine expressions. In addition, LGG significantly suppressed the expressions of CCL20 and CXCL10 induced by E. coli, peptidoglycan or flagellin when cultured simultaneously. CONCLUSIONS: LGG and L. casei markedly suppressed E. coli-induced chemokine expression, presumably through the suppression of the Toll-like receptor-mediated signal transduction pathway, at least in part. The clinical importance of this suppressive effect and the mechanisms involved require further investigation; however, such effects can be used as a marker to identify clinically useful LAB.

mRNA expression of lysyl oxidase and matrix metalloproteinase-12 in mouse skin.

Elastic fibers in the dermis play an important role in skin elasticity. The desmosine crosslinking structure constructed of lysyl oxidase (LOX) in elastic fibers contributes to elasticity, while elastic fibers are primarily degraded by one of the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), MMP-12. We investigated the gender differences and diurnal variation of these enzymes. Gender-based differences in LOX mRNA expression were detected, and were significantly lower in females. In contrast, higher MMP-12 mRNA expression was observed in the light period, suggesting that elastic fibers might be degraded in the light rather than the dark period.

Angiotensin I-converting enzyme-inhibitory peptides obtained from chicken collagen hydrolysate.

In this study, collagen extracted from chicken legs (which are the yellow keratin parts containing a nail) was hydrolyzed with various enzymes, and the angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity of each hydrolysate was determined. The hydrolysate by treatment with an Aspergillus species-derived enzyme had the highest activity (IC 50 = 260 microg/mL). The fraction of this hydrolysate obtained by ultrafiltration with a molecular-weight cutoff of 3000 Da (low fraction) had a stronger activity (IC 50 = 130 microg/mL) than the fractionated one. This fraction was further fractionated by HPLC, and the peptides in the fraction with high ACE-inhibitory activity were identified. The amino acid sequences of the four peptides were identified using a protein sequencer. These peptides were synthesized to confirm their ACE-inhibitory activities; this showed that peptides with a Gly-Ala-Hyp-Gly-Leu-Hyp-Gly-Pro sequence had the highest activity (IC 50 = 29 microM). When the low fraction was administered to spontaneous hypertensive rats, a decrease in their blood pressure was observed after 2 h of administration, and a significant decrease in blood pressure (-50 mmHg) was observed after 6 h. Moreover, long-term administration studies indicated that the low fraction showed a significant suppression of increased blood pressure.

Chicken breast attenuates high-intensity-exercise-induced decrease in rat sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ handling.

This study was conducted to determine whether dietary chicken-breast extract (CBEX), a rich source of histidine-containing dipeptides, could modify exercise-induced changes in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) function. After 5 weeks of dietary CBEX, SR Ca2+-handling ability was examined in the vastus lateralis muscles of rats subjected to high-intensity running for 2.5 min. Dietary CBEX caused an approximately 15% and 45% increase (p<.01) in muscle carnosine and anserine concentrations, respectively. In resting muscles, depressions in SR Ca2+-ATPase activity were evoked by dietary CBEX without concomitant changes in SR Ca2+ uptake and release rates. The data confirm that high-intensity exercise depresses SR Ca2+ handling. In spite of the same run time, SR Ca2+ handling was reduced to a lesser degree in muscles of CBEX-containing-chow-fed rats than in standard-chow-fed rats (p<.05). These results suggest that dietary CBEX might attenuate deteriorations in SR Ca2+-handling ability that occur with high-intensity exercise.

Royal jelly peptides inhibit lipid peroxidation in vitro and in vivo.

Royal jelly peptides (RJPx) isolated from hydrolysates of water-soluble royal jelly proteins prepared with protease P exhibited significantly stronger hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity (p<0.001), and antioxidant activity against lipid peroxidation (LPO, p<0.001), than did water-soluble royal jelly protein (WSRJP) in vitro. We also investigated the in vivo antioxidant activity of RJPx against ferric nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA)-induced LPO. Male Wistar rats were divided into a control group (Group C), an Fe-NTA group (Group Fe), and an Fe-NTA with RJPx group (Group Fe+R). Rats in Group Fe+R were fed RJPx (2 g/kg body weight) daily for 5 wk. Fe-NTA (8 mg Fe/kg body weight) was then intraperitoneally injected, and serum lipid levels were examined 2 h later. Serum total cholesterol (TC) levels were lower (p<0.05) while low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and LPO were significantly higher (p<0.01) in Group Fe than in Group C. TC (p<0.05) and LPO levels (p<0.01) were lower in Group Fe+R than in Group Fe. Our data suggest that RJPx may inhibit LPO both in vitro and in vivo.

Carnosine-induced antidepressant-like activity in rats.

Depression is a pathological state of mood and is considered as one of the major causes of disabilities. Thus, the prevention of depression and care for individuals with depression is important. In the present study, we examined whether a single oral dose of CBEX (chicken breast extract), or carnosine (one of the major components of CBEX) affects immobility time, an index of depressive-like behavior, in the forced swimming test in male Wistar rats. CBEX tended to (P=0.09) and carnosine significantly (P<0.05) decreased immobility time in the forced swimming test. In the hippocampus, both CBEX and carnosine significantly decreased 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol, a major metabolite of norepinephrine, indicating that CBEX and carnosine could reduce NE activity in the hippocampus in the forced swimming test. CBEX and carnosine did not affect total locomotive distance or rearing in the open field test, suggesting that the reductions of immobility time by both treatments in the forced swimming test were not merely due to the stimulation of general motor activity. Taken together, these results suggest that CBEX has an antidepressant-like effect, which may be due, in part, to the effect of carnosine.

Oral administration of chicken breast extract increases brain carnosine and anserine concentrations in rats.

Carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) and its derivative anserine (beta-alanyl-1-methyl-L-histidine) are antioxidants and putative neurotransmitters in the brain. These dipeptides are rich in the commercially available supplement chicken breast extract (CBEX). To clarify the effects of CBEX on the brain, we examined whether single oral administration of CBEX (20 ml/kg) affects brain dipeptide and free amino acid concentrations in male Wistar rats. CBEX significantly and time-dependently increased carnosine and anserine levels in the plasma (at 120 min after injection, increase rates were 2976 and 4142%, respectively), hippocampus (64 and 78%), and hypothalamus (188 and 120%), but not in cerebral cortex. Significant and time-dependent increases in citrulline in the hippocampus (49%) and hypothalamus (41%) demonstrated generation of nitric oxide due to the increased carnosine and/or anserine levels in these brain regions. These findings suggest that CBEX modifies brain functions by increasing levels of these dipeptides.

Royal jelly supplementation improves lipoprotein metabolism in humans.

Royal jelly (RJ) has several physiological effects and is widely used in commercial medical products and health foods. We examined the effects of RJ supplementation on serum lipoprotein metabolism in humans. Fifteen volunteers were divided into an RJ intake group (n=7) and a control group (n=8). The RJ group took 6 g per day for 4 wk. Their serum total cholesterol (TC) and serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) decreased significantly compared with those of the control group (p<0.05). There were no significant differences in serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) or triglyceride concentrations. Moreover, the relationship between the serum cholesterol and lipoprotein levels was investigated. Among the lipoprotein fractions, small very-low-density lipoprotein was decreased (p<0.05) after RJ intake. Our results suggest that dietary RJ decreases TC and LDL by lowering small VLDL levels.