Why do zoos attract crows? A comparative study from Europe and Asia.

Crows have successfully colonized many cities, and urban zoos have been important in this process. To evaluate why zoos attract crows, we quantified crow numbers and behavior in three zoos in Europe (Debrecen, Edinburgh, Vienna) and one in Asia (Sapporo). Data were collected in 445 surveys over 297 days in summer 2014 and winter 2014-2015. We found that crow numbers were highest in Vienna, intermediate in Debrecen and Edinburgh and lowest in Sapporo, increased significantly from summer to winter (Debrecen, Edinburgh, Vienna), and from mornings to afternoons (Debrecen, Sapporo, Vienna), and were higher in sunny weather than in cloudy weather with precipitation and when visitor numbers were low (Debrecen, Vienna). The crows' use of natural food was highest in Vienna, intermediate in Edinburgh and Sapporo, and low in Debrecen. The use of anthropogenic food was high in Debrecen and Sapporo, where the availability of open grassy areas typically used by crows for natural foraging was low. In Sapporo, food availability was more limited than in other zoos, resulting in strong territoriality and few crows in summer, which decreased further in winter. Our study indicates that crows are primarily attracted to zoos by food availability and secondarily by breeding opportunities and that the relative importance of natural versus anthropogenic food sources may vary with zoo habitat structure. Our study draws attention to a previously overlooked role of zoos in urban biodiversity conservation. It may also provide useful information for the management of crow populations, if necessary, and for the planning of urban areas.

AN EPIZOOTIC OF EMERGING NOVEL AVIAN POX IN CARRION CROWS (CORVUS CORONE) AND LARGE-BILLED CROWS (CORVUS MACRORHYNCHOS) IN JAPAN.

In 2006-10, an epizootic of emerging avian pox occurred in Carrion Crows ( Corvus corone ) and Large-billed Crows ( Corvus macrorhynchos ), leading to mortality of juvenile crows in Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan. We diagnosed 27 crows with proliferative skin lesions (19 carcasses and eight biopsied cases [one in zoo captivity]) as avian pox clinically, histopathologically by detection of Avipoxvirus-specific 4b core protein (P4b) gene, and epidemiologically. The fatal cases demonstrated intensively severe infection and aggressive lesions with secondary bacterial infection. Since the first identification of avian pox in Sapporo, Japan, in 2006, the frequency of mortality events has increased, peaking in 2007-08. Mortalities have subsequently occurred in other areas, suggesting disease expansion. In Sapporo, prevalence of avian pox evaluated by field censuses during 2007-12 was 17.6% (6.6-27.2%), peaked during 2007-08 and 2008-09, and then decreased. All diseased crows were juveniles, except for one adult. The number of crows assembling in the winter roosts had been stable for >10 yr; however, it declined in 2007-08, decreased by about 50% in 2008-09, and recovered to the previous level in 2009-10, correlated with the avian pox outbreak. Thus, avian pox probably contributed to the unusual crow population decline. All P4b sequences detected in six specimens in Sapporo were identical and different from any previously reported sequences. The sequence detected in the zoo-kept crow was distinct from any reported clades, and interspecies transmission was suspected. This report demonstrates an emerging novel avian pox in the Japanese avifauna and in global populations of Carrion Crows and Large-billed Crows. Longitudinal monitoring is needed to evaluate its impact on the crow population.

Steroidal glycoalkaloid profiling and structures of glycoalkaloids in wild tomato fruit.

Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) constitute one of the main groups of secondary metabolites in tomato fruit. However, the detailed composition of SGAs other than α-tomatine, dehydrotomatine and esculeoside A, remains unclear. Comparative SGA profiling was performed in eight tomato accessions, including wild tomato species by HPLC-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (HPLC-FTICR/MS). On the basis of molecular formulae obtained from accurate m/z and fragmentation patterns by multistage MS/ MS (MS(n)), 123 glycoalkaloids in total were screened. Detailed MS(n) analysis showed that the observed structural diversity was derived from various chemical modifications, such as glycosylation, acetylation, hydroxylation and isomerization. Total SGA content in each tomato accession was in the range of 121-1986 nmol/gfr.wt. Furthermore, the compositional variety of SGA structures was distinctive in some tomato accessions. While most tomato accessions were basically categorized as α-tomatine-rich or esculeoside A-rich group, other specific SGAs also accumulated at high levels in wild tomato. Here, five such SGAs were isolated and their structures were determined by NMR spectroscopic analysis, indicating three of them were presumably synthesized during α-tomatine metabolism.

Distribution of major xanthones in the pericarp, aril, and yellow gum of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana linn.) fruit and their contribution to antioxidative activity.

Xanthone compounds in mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana Linn.) fruit have been reported to have biological activities including antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects, and the major xanthone compounds in mangosteen are α-mangostin and γ-mangostin. The objectives of this research were to quantify and qualify the major xanthones in each part of the mangosteen fruit with and without yellow gum from the point of view of effective utilization of agricultural product. Quantitative evaluation revealed that yellow gum had extremely high amounts of α-mangostin and γ-mangostin (382.2 and 144.9 mg/g on a wet basis, respectively) followed by pericarp and aril. In mangosteen fruit with yellow gum inside, xanthones seemed to have shifted from the pericarp and to have concentrated in a gum on the surface of aril, and there was almost no difference between the amounts of α-mangostin and γ-mangostin in whole fruits with and without yellow gum. Pericarp and yellow gum showed much higher radical-scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant potential than the aril.

Formation mechanism and characterization of dilysyl-dipyrrolones, the Maillard-type yellow pigments.

Our group has recently isolated and identified novel yellow compounds named dilysyl-dipyrrolones A (DPL A; 1) and B (DPL B; 2) in a heated aqueous solution containing xylose and lysine under weakly acidic conditions. In this study, we isolated and identified a novel DPL derivative (DPL C; 3), which has the same structure as DPL B, except for containing a hydroxymethyl group. To estimate the formation mechanism of DPL derivatives, (13)C-labeled DPLs were prepared and analyzed with LC/MS and NMR. (13)C-labeling experiments using [1-(13)C] ribose showed that the formation pathway of DPL C was different from those of DPLs A and B. In addition, (13)C-labeling experiments using [u-(13)C5] ribose and [1-(13)C] lysine showed that C-6 of a methine moiety in DPL C was derived from C-5 of ribose or acetic acid in buffer. Based on these results, we postulated the formation mechanism of DPLs. We then showed that DPLs A and B had potent antioxidant activities.

Decontamination effect of milling by a jet mill on bacteria in rice flour.

The decontamination effect of milling by a jet mill was investigated by counting the number of bacteria in brown and white rice flour with mean particle diameters of 3, 20, and 40µm prepared by the jet mill. In the jet mill, the particles are crushed and reduced in size by the mechanical impact caused by their collision. Although the brown and white rice grains were contaminated with approximately 10(6) and 10(5) CFU/g bacteria, the microbial load of the rice flour decreased as the mean particle diameter decreased, ultimately decreasing to approximately 104 and 103 CFU/g in the brown and white rice flour. The temperature and pressure changes of the sample were not considered to have an effect on reducing the bacterial count during the milling. Hence, it was thought that the rice flour was decontaminated by other effects.

Identification of 2,4-dihydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-thiophenone as a low-molecular-weight yellow pigment in soy sauce.

The color of soy sauce is considered to be mainly attributable to melanoidins formed by the Maillard reaction. However, the chemical structure of melanoidins cannot be clarified, because melanoidins are high-molecular-weight heterogeneous polymers. We isolated a low-molecular-weight pigment from soy sauce and identified 2,4-dihydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-thiophenone as this pigment formed by the Maillard reaction, although its contribution to the total color of soy sauce was very low.

Conditions for the formation of dilysyl-dipyrrolones A and B, and novel yellow dipyrrolone derivatives formed from xylose and amino acids in the presence of lysine.

Foods derived from plants contain pentose in addition to hexose. It is well known that pentose contributes more to browning by the Maillard reaction than hexose does. We have recently found novel yellow compounds formed from xylose and lysine under weakly acidic conditions, named dilysyldipyrrolones (dilysyl-DPLs) A and B. We indicate in this study that dilysyl-DPLs were specifically formed under weakly acidic conditions from pentose, but not hexose. Moreover, we found novel DPL derivatives which were formed from xylose and such amino acids as alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, serine, and valine in the presence of lysine.

Bile acid-binding ability of kaki-tannin from young fruits of persimmon (Diospyros kaki) in vitro and in vivo.

The bile acid-binding ability of a highly polymerized tannin (kaki-tannin) extracted from dried-young fruits of persimmon (Diospyros kaki) was examined. The kaki-tannin was composed mainly of epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin-3-O-gallate and epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate. Bile acid-binding ability of kaki-tannin was examined against cholic acid, glycocholic acid, taurocholic acid and deoxycholic acid in vitro, and its effect on fecal bile acid excretion in mice was also examined. Although the bile acid-binding ability of kaki-tannin was weaker than that of cholestyramine, kaki-tannin adsorbed all the bile acids tested and significantly promoted fecal bile acid excretion in mice when supplied at 1% (w/w) in the diet.

Projeto odontológico-preventivo em gestantes, parturientes e bebês da enfermaria de obstetrícia do HSPM / hospital do servidor público municipal de São Paulo / Project-preventive dentistry in pregnant women, new mothers and babies of obstetrics HSPM infirmary / hospital do servidor publico municipal de Sao Paulo

O campo de ação da odontopediatria diz respeito a prevenção ao diagnóstico e ao tratamento integral da criança em todos os aspectos relacionados com a boca, nas diferentes idades e fases do desenvolvimento . Os pais precisam ser orientados quanto à importância da saúde bucal e de sua manutenção através da higiene oral do bebê. Devem possuir conhecimentos sobre a amamentação natural e artificial; controle da ingestação de açúcar e importância da aplicação de flúor (Duarte, Santos 1996). O papel do dentista dentro do contexto de saúde oral da população infantil é de suma importância, uma vez que estes profissionais detém amplo conhecimento a respeito dos fatores etiológicos, meios de prevenção e controle das doenças bucais. A promoção de saúde da população portanto representa a principal meta educacional a ser alcançada, fato que deve ser iniciado o mais precocemente possível através da orientação às gestantes e mães de recém-nascidos, já que estas passam a ser a principal agente para o desenvolvimento de hábitos de seus filhos.

Projeto odontológico em gestantes, parturientes e bebês da Enfermaria de Obstetrícia do Hospital do Servidor Público Municipal

O campo de ação da odontopediatria diz respeito a prevenção, ao diagnóstico e ao tratamento integral da criança em todos os aspectos relacionados com a boca, nas diferentes idades e fases do desenvolvimento. Os pais precisam ser orientados quanto à importância da saúde bucal e de sua manutenção através da higiene oral do bebê devem possuir conhecimentos sobre a amamentação natural e artificial; controle da ingestão de açúcar e importância da aplicação de flúor (Duarte, Santos 1996). O papel do dentista dentro do contexto de saúde oral da população infantil é de suma importânciaç, uma vez que estes profissionais detêm amplo conhecimento a respeito dos fatores etiológicos, meios de prevenção e controle das doenças bucais. A promoção de saúde da população portanto representa a principal meta educacional a ser alcançada, fato que deve ser iniciado o mais precocemente possível através da orientação às gestantes e mães de recém-nascidos, já que estas passam a ser a principal agente para o desenvolvimento de hábitos de seus filhos

Projeto odontológico-preventivo em gestantes, parturientes e bebês da Enfermaria de Obstetrícia do HSPM / Hospital do Servidor Público Municipal de São Paulo / Project-preventive dentistry in pregnant women, new mothers and babies of Obstetrics HSPM Infirmary / Hospital do Servidor Publico Municipal de Sao Paulo

O campo de ação da odontopediatria diz respeito a prevenção ao diagnóstico e ao tratamento integral da criança em todos os aspectos relacionados com a boca, nas diferentes idades e fases do desenvolvimento . Os pais precisam ser orientados quanto à importância da saúde bucal e de sua manutenção através da higiene oral do bebê. Devem possuir conhecimentos sobre a amamentação natural e artificial; controle da ingestação de açúcar e importância da aplicação de flúor (Duarte, Santos 1996). O papel do dentista dentro do contexto de saúde oral da população infantil é de suma importância, uma vez que estes profissionais detém amplo conhecimento a respeito dos fatores etiológicos, meios de prevenção e controle das doenças bucais. A promoção de saúde da população portanto representa a principal meta educacional a ser alcançada, fato que deve ser iniciado o mais precocemente possível através da orientação às gestantes e mães de recém-nascidos, já que estas passam a ser a principal agente para o desenvolvimento de hábitos de seus filhos (AU)

Projeto odontológico em gestantes, parturientes e bebês da Enfermaria de Obstetrícia do Hospital do Servidor Público Municipal / Dental Project in pregnant women, new mothers and babies at the Hospital Obstetrics Ward of the Municipal Civil Servants

O campo de ação da odontopediatria diz respeito a prevenção, ao diagnóstico e ao tratamento integral da criança em todos os aspectos relacionados com a boca, nas diferentes idades e fases do desenvolvimento. Os pais precisam ser orientados quanto à importância da saúde bucal e de sua manutenção através da higiene oral do bebê devem possuir conhecimentos sobre a amamentação natural e artificial; controle da ingestão de açúcar e importância da aplicação de flúor (Duarte, Santos 1996). O papel do dentista dentro do contexto de saúde oral da população infantil é de suma importânciaç, uma vez que estes profissionais detêm amplo conhecimento a respeito dos fatores etiológicos, meios de prevenção e controle das doenças bucais. A promoção de saúde da população portanto representa a principal meta educacional a ser alcançada, fato que deve ser iniciado o mais precocemente possível através da orientação às gestantes e mães de recém-nascidos, já que estas passam a ser a principal agente para o desenvolvimento de hábitos de seus filhos (AU)

First preparation of single-enantiomer juvenile hormone III acid and (R)-juvenile hormone III-d3.

The (R)- and (S)-enantiomers of juvenile hormone (JH) III acid [(R)-2 and (S)-2] were prepared by the hydrolysis of (R)- and (S)-JH III [(R)-1 and (S)-1], respectively. Each enantiomer of 2 was purified by preparative reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography in a single operation. (RS)-2 was methylated with CH3I and K2CO3 in MeCN, yielding (RS)-1. (R)-JH III-d3 [(R)-3], a single-enantiomer internal standard for quantification, was prepared from (R)-2 with CD3I and K2CO3 in MeCN.

Novel yellow compounds, dilysyldipyrrolones A and B, formed from xylose and lysine by the Maillard reaction.

When a solution containing xylose and L-lysine is heated under weakly acidic conditions, it turns brown by the Maillard reaction. We isolated here two novel yellow compounds from a heated solution containing xylose and lysine, and identified pyrrolyl-methylidene-pyrrolone derivatives named dilysyldipyrrolones A and B. Their chemical structures were elucidated by instrumental analyses as 6-[[1-[(S)-5-amino-1-carboxypentyl]-3-hydroxy-pyrrol-2-yl]-(E)-2-methylidene-5-methyl-1,2H-pyrrol-3-one-1-ly]-(S)-2-amino-hexanoic acid (dilysyldipyrrolone A) and 6-[[1-[(S)-5-amino-5-carboxypentyl]-3-hydroxy-pyrrol-2-yl]-(E)-2-methylidene-5-methyl-1,2H-pyrrol-3-one-1-yl]-(S)-2-amino-hexanoic acid (dilysyldipyrrolone B). These were the major pigments in the heated solution.

Identification and some properties of anthocyanin isolated from Zuiki, stalk of Colocasia esculenta.

Zuiki, a stalk of taro (Colocasia esculenta), is a traditional vegetable in Japan. Raw zuiki is often boiled and vinegared to eat. The surface color of zuiki is reddish. Here, we isolated a red pigment from zuiki and identified it as cyanidin 3-rutinoside using instrumental analyses. The color of zuiki disappeared by boiling, but the zuiki turned red again in an acetic acid solution. It seems that the cyanidin 3-rutinoside that exists on the surface of zuiki elutes in boiling water and then, the pigment that seeps out from the inside of the zuiki is exposed to an acid solution, and its surface turns red again. The radical scavenging activity of purified zuiki anthocyanin was 114 mg equivalent to BHT/g. About half of the anthocyanin in fresh zuiki was washed out by boiling, and the radical scavenging activity of zuiki was definitely reduced.

Antiproliferative effect on human cancer cell lines after treatment with nimbolide extracted from an edible part of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica).

Nimbolide, a triterpenoid extracted from the flowers of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), was found to have antiproliferative activity against some cancer cell lines. Treatment of cells with 0.5-5.0 microm concentrations of nimbolide resulted in moderate to very strong growth inhibition in U937, HL-60, THP1 and B16 cell lines. Flow cytometric analysis of U937 cells showed that nimbolide treatment (1-2.5 microm) resulted in cell cycle disruption by decreasing the number of cells in G0/G1 phase, with initial increases in S and G2/M phases. Cells exposed to a higher dose of nimbolide for a longer period displayed a severely damaged DNA profile, resulting in a remarkable increase in the number of cells in the sub-G1 fraction, with a reciprocal decrease of cells in all phases. Quantification of the expression of phosphatidylserine in the outer cell membrane showed that doses of nimbolide higher than 0.4 microm exerted remarkable lethality, with over 60% of cells exhibiting apoptotic features after exposure to 1.2 microm nimbolide. The antiproliferative effect of nimbolide and its apoptosis-inducing property raise hope for its use in anticancer therapy by enhancing the effectiveness of cell cycle disruption.

Inhibition of colon cancer (HT-29) cell proliferation by a triterpenoid isolated from Azadirachta indica is accompanied by cell cycle arrest and up-regulation of p21.

Nimbolide, a natural triterpenoid present in the edible parts of the neem tree ( Azadirachta indica), was found to be growth-inhibitory in human colon carcinoma HT-29 cells. Nimbolide treatment of cells at 2.5 - 10 microM resulted in moderate to very strong growth inhibition. Flow cytometric analysis of HT-29 cells showed that nimbolide treatment (2.5 microM, 12 h) caused a 6.5-fold increase in the number of cells (55.6 %) in the G2/M phase compared with the control cells (8.8 %). At 48 h, the cell population in the G2/M phase decreased to 18 %, while that in the G0/G1 phase increased to 52.3 %. Western blot analysis revealed that nimbolide-mediated G2/M arrest was accompanied by the up-regulation of p21, cyclin D2, Chk2; and down-regulation of cyclin A, cyclin E, Cdk2, Rad17. At G0/G1 cell cycle arrest, modulation in the expression of the cell cycle regulatory molecules was also observed. We found that nimbolide-induced growth inhibition and cell cycle arrest were not associated with cellular differentiation. Quantification of cells with respect to the expression of phosphatidylserine in the outer cell membrane showed an increase in apoptotic cells by about 13 % after 48 h of nimbolide treatment.

Apoptosis, necrosis and cell proliferation-inhibition by cyclosporine A in U937 cells (a human monocytic cell line).

The immunosuppressive drug cyclosporine A (CsA) has been used in both organ transplantation and the treatment of autoimmune disorders. However, the drug causes adverse effects in the kidney, liver and nervous system, characterized by cellular loss in the affected area. Apoptosis has been shown to play a role in CsA-induced cytotoxicity. Because permeabilization of the mitochondrial membrane is a common criterion in most apoptotic settings in vertebrate cells, here we evaluated whether CsA causes loss of mitochondrial function in the pathway leading to cellular cytotoxicity. We found that CsA caused a concentration- and time-dependent loss of cell viability in the U937 cell line. Treatment of cells at a dose of 10 microM CsA resulted in G0/G1 arrest with a concurrent decrease in the number of cells in the S and G2/M phases of the cell cycle. In mechanistic studies related to the loss of viability, treating cells with 10 microM CsA for 24 h resulted in both DNA fragmentation and an increase of annexin-V-positive cells. CsA treatment also increased activity of the cysteine protease caspase-3, decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential and induced the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol. Furthermore, CsA treatment increased the number of cells in the sub-G0/G1 peak, indicative of a reduction in DNA, although this increase was not observed when cells were pre-treated with a broad caspase inhibitor. In the study, we also found that a higher dose of CsA induces LDH release when the cells were incubated for a longer period. Taken together, these data suggest that the mode of cell death induced by CsA is dose- and time-dependent. Short-term incubation with lower doses of CsA arrests cell growth; this arrest overlaps with the occurrence of apoptosis and then with necrosis after longer treatment periods with higher doses of CsA.

Changes in caffeic acid derivatives in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) during cooking and processing.

There was an obvious decrease in caffeic acid derivatives during the boiling of cube-shaped blocks of sweet potatoes. They also decreased in a mixture of freeze-dried sweet-potato powder and water maintained at room temperature. Ascorbic acid prevented the decrease, supporting the occurrence of an enzyme reaction with polyphenol oxidase (PPO). 5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA, "3-O-caffeoylquinic acid" as a trivial name) and 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid (3,5-CQA), major phenolic compounds of sweet potato, did not change when they were separately heated in boiling water. When the mixture of powdered sweet potato and water was heated at 100 degrees C, there was only a negligible decrease in the total amount of phenolic compounds, and portions of 5-CQA and 3,5-CQA were found to be isomerized to 3-CQA, 4-CQA, 3,4-CQA, and 4,5-CQA. The content and composition of the phenolic compounds in sweet potatoes differed between fresh and long-stored ones, as did their response to heating.