Retinal nerve fiber layer in frontotemporal lobar degeneration and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Purpose: Tauopathy and transactive response DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) proteinopathy are associated with neurodegenerative diseases. These proteinopathies are difficult to detect in vivo. This study examined if spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) can differentiate in vivo the difference in peripapillary retinal nerve fibre layer (pRNFL) thickness and macular retinal thickness between participants with presumed tauopathy (progressive supranuclear palsy) and those with presumed TDP-43 proteinopathy (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and semantic variant primary progressive aphasia). Study design: Prospective, multi-centre, observational study. Materials and methods: pRNFL and macular SD-OCT images were acquired in both eyes of each participant using Heidelberg Spectralis SD-OCT. Global and pRNFL thickness in 6 sectors were analyzed, as well as macular thickness in a central 1 mm diameter zone and 4 surrounding sectors. Linear mixed model methods adjusting for baseline differences between groups were used to compare the two groups with respect to pRNFL and macular thickness. Results: A significant difference was found in mean pRNFL thickness between groups, with the TDP-43 group (n = 28 eyes) having a significantly thinner pRNFL in the temporal sector than the tauopathy group (n = 9 eyes; mean difference = 15.46 µm, SE = 6.98, p = 0.046), which was not significant after adjusting for multiple comparisons. No other significant differences were found between groups for pRNFL or macular thickness. Conclusion: The finding that the temporal pRNFL in the TDP-43 group was on average 15.46 µm thinner could potentially have clinical significance. Future work with larger sample sizes, longitudinal studies, and at the level of retinal sublayers will help to determine the utility of SD-OCT to differentiate between these two proteinopathies.

Characterization and identification of measurable endpoints in a mouse model featuring age-related retinal pathologies: a platform to test therapies.

Apolipoprotein B100 (apoB100) is the structural protein of cholesterol carriers including low-density lipoproteins. It is a constituent of sub-retinal pigment epithelial (sub-RPE) deposits and pro-atherogenic plaques, hallmarks of early dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD), an ocular neurodegenerative blinding disease, and cardiovascular disease, respectively. Herein, we characterized the retinal pathology of transgenic mice expressing mouse apoB100 in order to catalog their functional and morphological ocular phenotypes as a function of age and establish measurable endpoints for their use as a mouse model to test potential therapies. ApoB100 mice were found to exhibit an age-related decline in retinal function, as measured by electroretinogram (ERG) recordings of their scotopic a-wave, scotopic b-wave; and c-wave amplitudes. ApoB100 mice also displayed a buildup of the cholesterol carrier, apolipoprotein E (apoE) within and below the supporting extracellular matrix, Bruch's membrane (BrM), along with BrM thickening, and accumulation of thin diffuse electron-dense sub-RPE deposits, the severity of which increased with age. Moreover, the combination of apoB100 and advanced age were found to be associated with RPE morphological changes and the presence of sub-retinal immune cells as visualized in RPE-choroid flatmounts. Finally, aged apoB100 mice showed higher levels of circulating and ocular pro-inflammatory cytokines, supporting a link between age and increased local and systemic inflammation. Collectively, the data support the use of aged apoB100 mice as a platform to evaluate potential therapies for retinal degeneration, specifically drugs intended to target removal of lipids from Bruch's membrane and/or alleviate ocular inflammation.

A recommended "minimum data set" framework for SD-OCT retinal image acquisition and analysis from the Atlas of Retinal Imaging in Alzheimer's Study (ARIAS).

INTRODUCTION: We propose a minimum data set framework for the acquisition and analysis of retinal images for the development of retinal Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers. Our goal is to describe methodology that will increase concordance across laboratories, so that the broader research community is able to cross-validate findings in parallel, accumulate large databases with normative data across the cognitive aging spectrum, and progress the application of this technology from the discovery stage to the validation stage in the search for sensitive and specific retinal biomarkers in AD. METHODS: The proposed minimum data set framework is based on the Atlas of Retinal Imaging Study (ARIAS), an ongoing, longitudinal, multi-site observational cohort study. However, the ARIAS protocol has been edited and refined with the expertise of all co-authors, representing 16 institutions, and research groups from three countries, as a first step to address a pressing need identified by experts in neuroscience, neurology, optometry, and ophthalmology at the Retinal Imaging in Alzheimer's Disease (RIAD) conference, convened by the Alzheimer's Association and held in Washington, DC, in May 2019. RESULTS: Our framework delineates specific imaging protocols and methods of analysis for imaging structural changes in retinal neuronal layers, with optional add-on procedures of fundus autofluorescence to examine beta-amyloid accumulation and optical coherence tomography angiography to examine AD-related changes in the retinal vasculature. DISCUSSION: This minimum data set represents a first step toward the standardization of retinal imaging data acquisition and analysis in cognitive aging and AD. A standardized approach is essential to move from discovery to validation, and to examine which retinal AD biomarkers may be more sensitive and specific for the different stages of the disease severity spectrum. This approach has worked for other biomarkers in the AD field, such as magnetic resonance imaging; amyloid positron emission tomography; and, more recently, blood proteomics. Potential context of use for retinal AD biomarkers is discussed.

LXRs regulate features of age-related macular degeneration and may be a potential therapeutic target.

Effective treatments and animal models for the most prevalent neurodegenerative form of blindness in elderly people, called age-related macular degeneration (AMD), are lacking. Genome-wide association studies have identified lipid metabolism and inflammation as AMD-associated pathogenic pathways. Given liver X receptors (LXRs), encoded by the nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group H members 2 and 3 (NR1H3 and NR1H2), are master regulators of these pathways, herein we investigated the role of LXR in human and mouse eyes as a function of age and disease and tested the therapeutic potential of targeting LXR. We identified immunopositive LXR fragments in human extracellular early dry AMD lesions and a decrease in LXR expression within the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) as a function of age. Aged mice lacking LXR presented with isoform-dependent ocular pathologies. Specifically, loss of the Nr1h3 isoform resulted in pathobiologies aligned with AMD, supported by compromised visual function, accumulation of native and oxidized lipids in the outer retina, and upregulation of ocular inflammatory cytokines, while absence of Nr1h2 was associated with ocular lipoidal degeneration. LXR activation not only ameliorated lipid accumulation and oxidant-induced injury in RPE cells but also decreased ocular inflammatory markers and lipid deposition in a mouse model, thereby providing translational support for pursuing LXR-active pharmaceuticals as potential therapies for dry AMD.

Retinal blood oxygen saturation and aqueous humour biomarkers in early diabetic retinopathy.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between retinal blood oxygen saturation (SO2 ) and specific aqueous humour (AH) concentrations of proangiogenic biomarkers in diabetic patients with nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) and to compare them with those of matched control subjects. METHODS: The sample comprised 14 participants with mild-to-moderate NPDR (69.1 ± 6.6 years) and 17 age-matched healthy controls (69.7 ± 6.3 years); all participants were previously scheduled for routine cataract extraction with intraocular lens implantation. Multiplex cytokine analyses of specific biomarkers, including vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), angiopoietin2 (Ang2), epidermal growth factor (EGF), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) were performed by BioPlex 200 system. Six non-invasive hyperspectral retinal images were acquired. RESULTS: Mean SO2 was significantly higher in both arterioles (94.4 ± 1.9 versus 93.0 ± 1.6) and venules (64.4 ± 5.6 versus 55.9 ± 4.8) of NPDR than in the healthy controls (p < 0.001). AH levels of HGF (p = 0.018), Ang2 (p = 0.005) and IL-8 (p = 0.034) were significantly higher, and EGF (p = 0.030) was significantly lower in NPDR subjects. The study demonstrated a correlation between venular retinal blood oxygen saturation and proangiogenic factors HGF (r = 0.558, p = 0.038), Ang2 (r = 0.556, p = 0.039) and EGF (r = -0.554, p = 0.040), but did not find any correlation for IL-8 (r = 0.330, p = 0.249) even though this biomarker was significantly higher in the diabetic group. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, the present study is the first report considering the association between SO2 and AH concentrations of protein biomarkers in diabetic retinopathy. The biomarkers of interest have been shown to participate in cell death, which may explain higher oxygen saturation in NPDR.

Aqueous humour concentrations of TGF-ß, PLGF and FGF-1 and total retinal blood flow in patients with early non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

PURPOSE: To correlate angiogenic cytokines in the aqueous humour with total retinal blood flow in subjects with type 2 diabetes with non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR). METHODS: A total of 17 controls and 16 NPDR patients were recruited into the study. Aqueous humour was collected at the start of cataract surgery to assess the concentration of 14 angiogenic cytokines. Aqueous humour was analysed using the suspension array method. Six images were acquired to assess total retinal blood flow (TRBF) using the prototype RTVue™ Doppler Fourier domain optical coherence tomography (Doppler FD-OCT) (Optovue, Inc., Fremont, CA) using a double circular scan protocol, 1 month postsurgery. At the same visit, forearm blood was collected to determine glycosylated haemoglobin (A1c). RESULTS: Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß1, TGF-ß2) and PLGF were increased while FGF-1 was reduced in NPDR compared to controls (Bonferroni corrected, p < 0.003 for all). Total retinal blood flow (TRBF) was significantly reduced in the NPDR group compared to controls (33.1 ± 9.9 versus 43.3 ± 5.3 µl/min, p = 0.002). Aqueous FGF-1 significantly correlated with TRBF in the NPDR group (r = 0.71, p = 0.01; r2  = 0.51). In a multiple regression analysis, A1c was found to be a significant predictor of aqueous TGF-ß1 and FGF-1 (p = 0.018 and p = 0.020, respectively). CONCLUSION: Aqueous angiogenic cytokines (TGF-ß1, TGF-ß2 and PLGF) were elevated in conjunction with a reduction in TRBF in patients with NPDR compared to controls. Non-invasive measurement of TRBF may be useful for predicting aqueous FGF-1 levels and severity of vasculopathy in DR.

Retinal Oxygen Saturation in Patients with Primary Open-angle Glaucoma Using a Non-flash Hypespectral Camera.

Purpose/Aim: To investigate retinal vessel blood oxygen saturation in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) and healthy controls. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A novel non-flash hyperspectral retinal camera was used to image 17 healthy individuals (mean age 69.3 ± 6.1 years) and 22 patients with stable POAG (mean age 69.2 ± 5.8 years) at 548, 569, 586, 600, 605, and 610 nm wavelengths. POAG patients were grouped as mild-moderate (n = 13) and moderate-severe (n = 9) based on Humphrey 24-2 visual field results (mean deviation [MD] < -6 and MD ≥ -6; respectively). Optical density values were extracted using Image-J software for blood oxygen saturation (SO2) determination. Arteriolar and venular SO2 were measured within 1.5 optic nerve head diameters from the disc margin along the vessels in the inferior temporal quadrant of the tested eye per subject. Analysis of variance (ANOVA), student t-test, and Pearson's correlation were used for statistical analysis of the data (p < 0.05). RESULTS: Venular, arteriolar, and arteriovenous (AV) differences in SO2 measurements were not significantly different between controls and the combined POAG groups (p > 0.06 for all). However, mean venular SO2 was significantly higher in the POAG with MD ≥ -6 dB when compared to controls and patients with mild glaucoma (p = 0.005). The AV differences were significantly lower in patients with more severe field defect (p = 0.006) compared to the remaining groups. No differences were found in the mean arteriolar SO2 between the groups (p = 0.155). Significant correlations were found only between higher visual field MD values and higher venular SO2 (p = 0.048) but not the remaining SO2 measurements. CONCLUSION: Patients with POAG and moderate-severe visual field defect had higher venular SO2 compared to those with mild-moderate defect and controls. This would indicate reduced oxygen consumption in more advanced glaucoma likely as a result of ganglion cell degeneration.

Retinal Blood Flow and Retinal Blood Oxygen Saturation in Mild to Moderate Diabetic Retinopathy.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between retinal blood flow (RBF) and retinal blood oxygen saturation (SO2) in mild to moderate nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) and in age-matched controls. METHODS: One eye of each of 15 healthy subjects (68 ± 6 years) and 13 subjects with mild to moderate NPDR (67 ± 10 years) was dilated. None of the patients with NPDR had received treatment for their retinopathic changes or had any evidence of sight-threatening characteristics. Doppler Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography blood flow was measured using the prototype RTVue system; six separate measurements each comprising an upper and a lower nasal pupil scan were acquired. Six hyperspectral retinal measurements were acquired using a noninvasive hyperspectral retinal camera (prototype H-8.5 HR Camera). RESULTS: Total RBF was significantly lower in NPDR when compared to controls (42.7 ± 7.5 vs. 33.0 ± 9.2 µL/min; P = 0.004). Mean retinal arterial and venular SO2 were higher in NPDR than in controls (94.7 ± 2.4% vs. 92.9 ± 1.6%, P = 0.02; 62.5 ± 5.7% vs. 56.3 ± 4.7%, P = 0.003). This study showed a correlation between RBF and arteriolar SO2 in both controls (r = 0.58, P = 0.02) and NPDR (r = 0.54, P = 0.05), but no correlation between venular RBF and venular SO2 in controls (r = 0.24, P = 0.83) or in NPDR (r = 0.23, P = 0.45). The arteriovenous difference (AV difference) was lower in the NPDR group when compared to controls (30.6 ± 6 vs. 36.7 ± 5.3, P = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: This study found a lower total RBF and a lower AV difference in the NPDR group, suggesting a reduced oxygen uptake from the retina in people with relatively early diabetic retinopathy.

Variability and repeatability of quantitative, Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography Doppler blood flow in young and elderly healthy subjects.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the within-session variability and between-session repeatability of spectral Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography (Doppler FD-OCT) Doppler retinal blood flow measurements in young and elderly subjects. METHODS: Doppler FD-OCT blood flow was measured using the RTVue system. One eye of each of 20 healthy young (24.7 ± 2.7 years) and 16 healthy elderly (64.6 ± 5.1 years) subjects was randomly selected, and the pupil was dilated. The double circular scanning pattern of the RTVue was employed. Six Doppler FD-OCT measurements (i.e., each separate measurement comprising an upper and a lower nasal pupil scan) were acquired at each session. Measurements were repeated approximately 2 weeks later. Total retinal blood flow was calculated by summing flow from all detectable venules surrounding the optic nerve head. The coefficient of variation (COV) and coefficient of repeatability (COR) were calculated for each individual. RESULTS: The individual COVs for retinal blood flow for young subjects ranged from 0.4% to 20.4% (median 7.5%) and for the elderly subjects ranged from 0.6% to 34.6% (median 9.2%). The group mean CORs for retinal blood flow for young participants were 6.4 µL/min (median 5.91 µL/min, relative to a mean effect 39.8 µL/min) and for elderly subjects were 10.5 µL/min (median 9.2 µL/min, relative to a mean effect 46.4 µL/min). CONCLUSIONS: Doppler FD-OCT gave consistent and repeatable blood flow measurements within retinal venules in normal subjects. Considering the individual variation in blood flow measurements, confidence limits for retinal hemodynamics need to be determined on an individual basis.

Grader learning effect and reproducibility of Doppler Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography derived retinal blood flow measurements.

PURPOSE: To investigate grader learning effect and to quantify intergrader reproducibility of Doppler Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (SD-OCT) derived retinal blood flow measurements. METHODS: Fifteen healthy young subjects (mean age 28.44; SD 3 years) underwent Doppler SD-OCT scans of one eye using the circumpapillary double circular scan protocol of the Optovue RTVue by one of two experienced operators. One trained (i.e. having undergone certification) and one novice (i.e. preliminary training comprising five standard practice data sets) individual then graded a standardized set of scans, consisting of 15 data sets (session 1) using custom Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography of Retinal Circulation (DOCTORC) software. One week later (session 2), the novice grader underwent further training by grading an additional 15 practice data sets and then both graders subsequently regraded the original 15 data sets. RESULTS: Measurements achieved by a novice grader during session 1 showed a trend to be higher in terms of total retinal venous blood flow (TRBF) and also to be significantly (p = 0.03) higher for venous area, compared with a trained grader. Session 2 results were not significantly different for either grader. The mean TRBF for session 2 for the trained and novice grader was 45.29 ± 9.28 µl/min and 44.39 ± 7.36 µl/min, respectively. The coefficient of repeatability (COR) of session 2 TRBF values between the trained and novice grader was 8.09 µl/min. CONCLUSIONS: There is a grader learning effect which impacts the venous area measurements. Reproducible and repeatable retinal blood flow measurements were achieved among trained graders using DOCTORC software.

Noninvasive molecular imaging reveals role of PAF in leukocyte-endothelial interaction in LPS-induced ocular vascular injury.

Uveitis is a systemic immune disease and a common cause of blindness. The eye is an ideal organ for light-based imaging of molecular events underlying vascular and immune diseases. The phospholipid platelet-activating factor (PAF) is an important mediator of inflammation, the action of which in endothelial and immune cells in vivo is not well understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of PAF in endothelial injury in uveitis. Here, we use our recently introduced in vivo molecular imaging approach in combination with the PAF inhibitors WEB 2086 (WEB) and ginkgolide B (GB). The differential inhibitory effects of WEB and GB in reducing LPS-induced endothelial injury in the choroid indicate an important role for PAF-like lipids, which might not require the PAF receptor for their signaling. P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1-mediated rolling of mouse leukocytes on immobilized P-selectin in our autoperfused microflow chamber assay revealed a significant reduction in rolling velocity on the cells' contact with PAF. Rolling cells that came in contact with PAF rapidly assumed morphological signs of cell activation, indicating that activation during rolling does not require integrins. Our results show a key role for PAF in mediating endothelial and leukocyte activation in acute ocular inflammation. Our in vivo molecular imaging provides a detailed view of cellular and molecular events in the complex physiological setting.

An animal model of spontaneous metabolic syndrome: Nile grass rat.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a prevalent and complex disease, characterized by the variable coexistence of obesity, dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinaemia, and hypertension. The alarming rise in the prevalence of metabolic disorders makes it imperative to innovate preventive or therapeutic measures for MetS and its complications. However, the elucidation of the pathogenesis of MetS has been hampered by the lack of realistic models. For example, the existing animal models of MetS, i.e., genetically engineered rodents, imitate certain aspects of the disease, while lacking other important components. Defining the natural course of MetS in a spontaneous animal model of the disease would be desirable. Here, we introduce the Nile grass rat (NGR), Arvicanthis niloticus, as a novel model of MetS. Studies of over 1100 NGRs in captivity, fed normal chow, revealed that most of these animals spontaneously develop dyslipidemia (P<0.01), and hyperglycemia (P<0.01) by 1 yr of age. Further characterization showed that the diabetic rats develop liver steatosis, abdominal fat accumulation, nephropathy, atrophy of pancreatic islets of Langerhans, fatty streaks in the aorta, and hypertension (P<0.01). Diabetic NGRs in the early phase of the disease develop hyperinsulinemia, and show a strong inverse correlation between plasma adiponectin and HbA1c levels (P<0.01). These data indicate that the NGR is a valuable, spontaneous model for exploring the etiology and pathophysiology of MetS as well as its various complications.

The relationship between retinal vascular reactivity and arteriolar diameter in response to metabolic provocation.

PURPOSE: To compare the magnitude of vascular reactivity in response to metabolic provocation in retinal arterioles of varying diameter in healthy young subjects. METHODS: Ten healthy young subjects (26.2 +/- 3.5 years [mean +/- SD]) attended for three sessions. Session 1 was used to select two discrete hemodynamic measurement sites along the superior temporal arteriole. Retinal arteriolar blood flow was assessed at relatively narrow and wide sites. At sessions 2 and 3, CO(2) and O(2) were sequentially administered (and alternated across sessions) using manual gas flow control via a modified sequential rebreathing circuit to achieve target hypercapnia and hyperoxia. Blood flow was assessed for each gas phase. Total vascular reactivity capacity (TVRC) was taken as the difference in flow between hypercapnia and hyperoxia. RESULTS: The baseline diameter for the narrow and wide measurement sites was 92.4 microm (+/-13.6) and 116.7 microm (+/-12.7), respectively (ReANOVA; P < 0.0001). Hyperoxia induced a decrease in blood flow, whereas hypercapnia increased flow (P < 0.0001). TVRC was greater for the wide than for the narrow measurement sites (Delta flow narrow = 3.0 microL/min versus Delta flow wide = 6.6 microL/min; P < 0.0001). In terms of percentage change in flow relative to baseline, TVRC was the same between the wide and narrow sites (Delta narrow = 67% versus Delta wide = 61%; P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In response to metabolic provocation, absolute TVRC was greater for retinal arteriolar measurement sites with wider baseline vessel diameters. However, percentage change in retinal blood flow was the same irrespective of initial arteriolar diameter.

Rho kinase inhibition by fasudil ameliorates diabetes-induced microvascular damage.

OBJECTIVE: Leukocyte adhesion in retinal microvasuculature substantially contributes to diabetic retinopathy. Involvement of the Rho/Rho kinase (ROCK) pathway in diabetic microvasculopathy and therapeutic potential of fasudil, a selective ROCK inhibitor, are investigated. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Localization of RhoA/ROCK and Rho activity were examined in retinal tissues of rats. Impact of intravitreal fasudil administration on retinal endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and myosin phosphatase target protein (MYPT)-1 phosphorylation, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression, leukocyte adhesion, and endothelial damage in rat eyes were investigated. Adhesion of neutrophils from diabetic retinopathy patients or nondiabetic control subjects to cultured microvascular endothelial cells was quantified. The potential of fasudil for endothelial protection was investigated by measuring the number of adherent neutrophils and terminal transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling-positive endothelial cells. RESULTS: RhoA and ROCK colocalized predominantly in retinal microvessels. Significant Rho activation was observed in retinas of diabetic rats. Intravitreal fasudil significantly increased eNOS phosphorylation, whereas it reduced MYPT-1 phosphorylation, ICAM-1 expression, leukocyte adhesion, and the number of damaged endothelium in retinas of diabetic rats. Neutrophils from diabetic retinopathy patients showed significantly higher adhesion to cultured endothelium and caused endothelial apoptosis, which was significantly reduced by fasudil. Blockade of the Fas-FasL interaction prevented endothelial apoptosis. The protective effect of fasudil on endothelial apoptosis was significantly reversed by Nomega-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, a NOS inhibitor, whereas neutrophil adhesion remained unaffected. CONCLUSIONS: The Rho/ROCK pathway plays a critical role in diabetic retinal microvasculopathy. Fasudil protects the vascular endothelium by inhibiting neutrophil adhesion and reducing neutrophil-induced endothelial injury. ROCK inhibition may become a new strategy in the management of diabetic retinopathy, especially in its early stages.

Characterization of azurocidin as a permeability factor in the retina: involvement in VEGF-induced and early diabetic blood-retinal barrier breakdown.

PURPOSE: Azurocidin, released by neutrophils during leukocyte-endothelial interaction, is a main cause of neutrophil-evoked vascular leakage. Its role in the retina, however, is unknown. METHODS: Brown Norway rats received intravitreal injections of azurocidin and vehicle control. Blood-retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown was quantified using the Evans blue (EB) dye technique 1, 3, and 24 hours after intravitreal injection. To block azurocidin, aprotinin was injected intravenously before the intravitreal injections. To investigate whether azurocidin plays a role in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induced BRB breakdown, rats were treated intravenously with aprotinin, followed by intravitreal injection of VEGF(164). BRB breakdown was quantified 24 hours later. To investigate whether azurocidin may mediate BRB breakdown in early diabetes, aprotinin or vehicle was injected intravenously each day for 2 weeks to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, and BRB breakdown was quantified. RESULTS: Intravitreal injection of azurocidin (20 microg) induced a 6.8-fold increase in vascular permeability compared with control at 1-3 hours (P < 0.05), a 2.7-fold increase at 3 to 5 hours (P < 0.01), and a 1.7-fold increase at 24 hours (P < 0.05). Aprotinin inhibited azurocidin-induced BRB breakdown by more than 95% (P < 0.05). Furthermore, treatment with aprotinin significantly suppressed VEGF-induced BRB breakdown by 93% (P < 0.05) and BRB breakdown in early experimental diabetes by 40.6% (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Azurocidin increases retinal vascular permeability and is effectively blocked by aprotinin. The inhibition of VEGF-induced and early diabetic BRB breakdown with aprotinin indicates that azurocidin may be an important mediator of leukocyte-dependent BRB breakdown secondary to VEGF. Azurocidin may become a new therapeutic target in the treatment of retinal vascular leakage, such as during diabetic retinopathy.

In vivo imaging of endothelial injury in choriocapillaris during endotoxin-induced uveitis.

Early detection of ocular inflammation may prevent the occurrence of structural damage or vision loss. Here, we introduce a novel noninvasive technique for molecular imaging and quantitative evaluation of endothelial injury in the choriocapillaris of live animals, which detects disease earlier than currently possible. Using an established model of ocular inflammation, endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU), we visualized the rolling and adhesive interaction of fluorescent microspheres conjugated to recombinant P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-Ig (rPSGL-Ig) in choriocapillaris using a scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO). The number of rolling microspheres in the choriocapillaris peaked 4-10 h after LPS injection. The number of the accumulated microspheres peaked 4 h after LPS injection in the temporal choriocapillaris and 4 and 36 h after LPS injection in the central areas around the optic disk. Furthermore, we semiquantified the levels of P-selectin mRNA expression in the choroidal vessels by reverse transcription-PCR and found its pattern to match the functional microsphere interactions, with a peak at 4 h after LPS injection. These results indicate that PSGL-1-conjugated fluorescent microspheres allow specific detection of endothelial P-selectin expression in vivo and noninvasive assessment of endothelial injury. This technique may help to diagnose subclinical signs of ocular inflammatory diseases.