Long range frontal/posterior phase synchronization during remembered pursuit task is impaired in schizophrenia.

Although smooth pursuit eye movement (SPEM) is a reliable endophenotype of schizophrenia, exact underlying cognitive and neural substrates remain unknown. A simple mechanistic model of SPEM assumes an efficient interaction in integrating sensory input from the medial temporal (MT)/medial superior temporal (MST) brain regions and subsequent motor response through the frontal eye field (FEF). Poor functional connectivity between these two regions could explain impaired motion perception and SPEM maintenance in schizophrenia. In the present study, we combined an eye tracking paradigm with electroencephalography (EEG) recordings to investigate the putative functional connectivity among frontal/posterior brain regions in mediating the modulation of SPEM. Twenty four schizophrenic (SZ) and 22 healthy control (HC) participants performed remembered pursuit tasks with EEG recordings. Behaviorally, HC subjects showed significant improvement in SPEM response on repeated presentations of target compared to SZ subjects. Neurophysiologically HC subjects showed higher frontal/posterior phase synchronization in the beta to low gamma range frequency bands during all target presentations. In addition there was a significant increase in phase synchronization in the beta-2 frequency band in HC subjects during late compared to early target presentation. In contrast, higher frontal/posterior phase synchronization in the beta-2 frequency predicted better performance during late target presentation and lower enduring psychosis in SZ subjects. These data suggest a pathologically perturbed connectivity between frontal and posterior cortical regions during SPEM in SZ. The integrative eye tracking-EEG approach used in this study to dissect the endophenotype may reveal novel targets for studying schizophrenia psychopathology.

Prefrontal brain network connectivity indicates degree of both schizophrenia risk and cognitive dysfunction.

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive dysfunction is a core feature of schizophrenia, and persons at risk for schizophrenia may show subtle deficits in attention and working memory. In this study, we investigated the relationship between integrity of functional brain networks and performance in attention and working memory tasks as well as schizophrenia risk. METHODS: A total of 235 adults representing 3 levels of risk (102 outpatients with schizophrenia, 70 unaffected first-degree relatives of persons with schizophrenia, and 63 unrelated healthy controls [HCs]) completed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and a battery of attention and working memory tasks (Brief Test of Attention, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, and Brief Visuospatial Memory Test) on the same day. Functional networks were defined based on coupling with seeds in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), and primary visual cortex. Networks were then dissected into regional clusters of connectivity that were used to generate individual interaction matrices representing functional connectivity within each network. RESULTS: Both patients with schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives showed cognitive dysfunction compared with HCs. First canonicals indicated an inverse relationship between cognitive performance and connectivity within the DLPFC and MPFC networks. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed multivariate main effects of higher schizophrenia risk status on increased connectivity within the DLPFC and MPFC networks. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that excessive connectivity within brain networks coupled to the DLPFC and MPFC, respectively, accompany cognitive deficits in persons at risk for schizophrenia. This might reflect compensatory reactions in neural systems required for cognitive processing of attention and working memory tasks to brain changes associated with schizophrenia.

Smooth pursuit eye movement, prepulse inhibition, and auditory paired stimuli processing endophenotypes across the schizophrenia-bipolar disorder psychosis dimension.

BACKGROUND: This study examined smooth pursuit eye movement (SPEM), prepulse inhibition (PPI), and auditory event-related potentials (ERP) to paired stimuli as putative endophenotypes of psychosis across the schizophrenia-bipolar disorder dimension. METHODS: Sixty-four schizophrenia probands (SZP), 40 psychotic bipolar I disorder probands (BDP), 31 relatives of SZP (SZR), 26 relatives of BDP (BDR), and 53 healthy controls (HC) were tested. Standard clinical characterization, SPEM, PPI, and ERP measures were administered. RESULTS: There were no differences between either SZP and BDP or SZR and BDR on any of the SPEM, PPI, or ERP measure. Compared with HC, SZP and BDP had lower SPEM maintenance and predictive pursuit gain and ERP theta/alpha and beta magnitudes to the initial stimulus. PPI did not differ between the psychosis probands and HC. Compared with HC, SZR and BDR had lower predictive pursuit gain and ERP theta/alpha and beta magnitudes to the first stimulus with differences ranging from a significant to a trend level. Neither active symptoms severity nor concomitant medications were associated with neurophysiological outcomes. SPEM, PPI, and ERP scores had low intercorrelations. CONCLUSION: These findings support SPEM predictive pursuit and lower frequency auditory ERP activity in a paired stimuli paradigm as putative endophenotypes of psychosis common to SZ and BD probands and relatives. PPI did not differ between the psychosis probands and HC. Future studies in larger scale psychosis family samples targeting putative psychosis endophenotypes and underlying molecular and genetic mediators may aid in the development of biology-based diagnostic definitions.

Family history of psychosis moderates early auditory cortical response abnormalities in non-psychotic bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVES: Bipolar I disorder is a disabling illness affecting 1% of people worldwide. Family and twin studies suggest that psychotic bipolar disorder (BDP) represents a homogeneous subgroup with an etiology distinct from non-psychotic bipolar disorder (BDNP) and partially shared with schizophrenia. Studies of auditory electrophysiology [e.g., paired-stimulus and oddball measured with electroencephalography (EEG)] consistently report deviations in psychotic groups (schizophrenia, BDP), yet such studies comparing BDP and BDNP are sparse and, in some cases, conflicting. Auditory EEG responses are significantly reduced in unaffected relatives of psychosis patients, suggesting that they may relate to both psychosis liability and expression. METHODS: While 64-sensor EEGs were recorded, age- and gender-matched samples of 70 BDP, 35 BDNP {20 with a family history of psychosis [BDNP(+)]}, and 70 psychiatrically healthy subjects were presented with typical auditory paired-stimuli and auditory oddball paradigms. RESULTS: Oddball P3b reductions were present and indistinguishable across all patient groups. P2s to paired stimuli were abnormal only in BDP and BDNP(+). Conversely, N1 reductions to stimuli in both paradigms and P3a reductions were present in both BDP and BDNP(-) groups but were absent in BDNP(+). CONCLUSIONS: Although nearly all auditory neural response components studied were abnormal in BDP, BDNP abnormalities at early- and mid-latencies were moderated by family psychosis history. The relationship between psychosis expression, heritable psychosis risk, and neurophysiology within bipolar disorder, therefore, may be complex. Consideration of such clinical disease heterogeneity may be important for future investigations of the pathophysiology of major psychiatric disturbance.

Are structural brain abnormalities associated with suicidal behavior in patients with psychotic disorders?

Suicide represents a major health problem world-wide. Nevertheless, the understanding of the neurobiological underpinnings of suicidal behavior remains far from complete. We compared suicide attempters to non-attempters, and high vs. low lethality attempters, to identify brain regions associated with suicidal behavior in patients with psychotic disorders. 489 individuals with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or psychotic bipolar disorder I and 262 healthy controls enrolled in the B-SNIP study were studied. Groups were compared by attempt history and the highest medical lethality of previous suicide attempts. 97 patients had a history of a high lethality attempt, 51 of a low lethality attempt and 341 had no attempt history. Gray matter volumes were obtained from 3T structural MRI scans using FreeSurfer. ANCOVAs were used to examine differences between groups, followed by Hochberg multiple comparison correction. Compared to non-attempters, attempters had significantly less gray matter volume in bilateral inferior temporal and superior temporal cortices, left superior parietal, thalamus and supramarginal regions, right insula, superior frontal and rostral middle frontal regions. Among attempters, a history of high lethality attempts was associated with significantly smaller volumes in the left lingual gyrus and right cuneus. Compared to non-attempters, low lethality attempters had significant decreases in the left supramarginal gyrus, thalamus and the right insula. Structural brain abnormalities may distinguish suicide attempters from non-attempters and high from low lethality attempters among individuals with psychotic disorders. Regions in which differences were observed are part of neural circuitries that mediate inhibition, impulsivity and emotion, visceral, visual and auditory perception.

Clinical phenotypes of psychosis in the Bipolar-Schizophrenia Network on Intermediate Phenotypes (B-SNIP).

OBJECTIVE: Developing categorical diagnoses that have biological meaning within the clinical phenotype of psychosis (schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and bipolar I disorder with psychosis) is as important for developing targeted treatments as for nosological goals. The Bipolar-Schizophrenia Network on Intermediate Phenotypes (B-SNIP) was formed to examine a broad array of intermediate phenotypes across psychotic disorders and to test the hypothesis that intermediate phenotype characteristics are homogeneous within phenomenologically derived DSM-IV diagnoses. METHOD: The consortium recruited 933 stable probands with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or psychotic bipolar I disorder, 1,055 of their first-degree relatives, and 459 healthy comparison subjects for clinical characterization and dense phenotyping. Clinical, psychosocial, and family characteristics were contrasted. RESULTS: All proband groups showed lower psychosocial functioning than the relatives or comparison group. On average, schizophrenia probands showed more symptoms and lower psychosocial functioning than probands with psychotic bipolar disorder, but there was considerable overlap in clinical manifestations. The characteristics of schizoaffective disorder were more often similar to schizophrenia than to psychotic bipolar disorder. The rates of lifetime suicide attempts were high across all proband groups, with the highest reported frequencies in the schizoaffective and bipolar groups. Proband family lineages included both families with "pure" psychosis diagnoses and families with mixed schizophrenia-bipolar diagnoses. CONCLUSIONS: Symptoms, psychosocial functioning, and familial lineage overlap across the three DSM-IV psychosis diagnoses used in B-SNIP. The comingling of psychosis diagnoses within families suggests overlapping genetic determinants across psychoses. These data provide scant evidence for distinct phenotypic clustering around traditional phenomenological diagnoses.

Diffusion tensor imaging white matter endophenotypes in patients with schizophrenia or psychotic bipolar disorder and their relatives.

OBJECTIVE Both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are hypothesized to involve disordered brain connectivity. Prior studies show low white matter integrity, measured with diffusion tensor imaging, for both disorders. The authors studied disease specificity and endophenotypic status of these abnormalities by examining patients and their unaffected relatives. METHOD The 513 participants included probands with schizophrenia, probands with psychotic bipolar disorder, their first-degree relatives, and healthy comparison subjects. Fractional anisotropy measures of white matter integrity were collected at two sites as a part of the Bipolar-Schizophrenia Network on Intermediate Phenotypes project. Relatives with cluster A or B personality characteristics were further examined. RESULTS Both the probands with schizophrenia and those with psychotic bipolar disorder showed lower fractional anisotropy than the comparison subjects in multiple white matter regions; differences were more marked in schizophrenia. No significant differences existed between proband groups, but in some brain regions scores on a measure of the dimensional continuum between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, the Schizo-Bipolar Scale, showed correlations with fractional anisotropy. Many regions affected in schizophrenia probands showed similar but smaller effects in relatives, with a continuous fractional anisotropy decrease from healthy subjects to relatives to cluster A/B relatives to probands. The pattern for psychotic bipolar disorder was similar but involved fewer brain regions. Effects in bipolar relatives were limited to younger subjects. Fractional anisotropy decreased with age in all groups; this decrease was exaggerated in schizophrenia but not psychotic bipolar disorder. CONCLUSIONS Fractional anisotropy was highly heritable, supporting its value as a potential endophenotype.

Predictive pursuit association with deficits in working memory in psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Deficits in smooth pursuit eye movements are an established phenotype for schizophrenia (SZ) and are being investigated as a potential liability marker for bipolar disorder. Although the molecular determinants of this deficit are still unclear, research has verified deficits in predictive pursuit mechanisms in SZ. Because predictive pursuit might depend on the working memory system, we have hypothesized a relationship between the two in healthy control subjects (HC) and SZ and here examine whether it extends to psychotic bipolar disorder (BDP). METHODS: Volunteers with SZ (n = 38), BDP (n = 31), and HC (n = 32) performed a novel eye movement task to assess predictive pursuit as well as a standard visuospatial measure of working memory. RESULTS: Individuals with SZ and BDP both showed reduced predictive pursuit gain compared with HC (p < .05). Moreover, each patient group showed worse performance in visuospatial working memory compared with control subjects (p < .05). A strong correlation (r = .53, p = .007) was found between predictive pursuit gain and working memory in HC, a relationship that showed a trend correlation within the BDP group but not among SZ. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with SZ and BDP showed similar deficits in predictive pursuit, suggesting that this alteration could be a characteristic trait of the psychosis domain. The correlation between predictive pursuit and working memory in HC supports the assumption that working memory is related to predictive pursuit eye movements; however, the degradation of working memory in people with psychosis disrupts its association with eye-tracking behavior.

Cognitive endophenotypes of psychosis within dimension and diagnosis.

This study sought to characterize the psychosis phenotype, contrasting cognitive features within traditional diagnosis and psychosis dimension in a family sample containing both schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar I disorder. Seventy-six probands with psychosis [44 probands with schizophrenia, 32 probands with psychotic bipolar I disorder] and 55 first-degree relatives [30 relatives of schizophrenia probands, 25 relatives of bipolar probands] were recruited. Standardized clinical and neuropsychological measures were administered. No differences in cognitive performance emerged between probands with schizophrenia and probands with psychotic bipolar disorder, or between relatives of probands with schizophrenia and relatives of probands with bipolar disorder in the domains of working and declarative memory, executive function and attention. Relatives overall showed higher cognitive performance compared to probands, as expected. However, when we segmented the probands and relatives along a psychosis dimension, independent of diagnostic groups, results revealed lower cognitive performance in probands compared to relatives without psychosis spectrum disorders, whereas relatives with psychosis spectrum disorders showed an intermediate level of performance across all cognitive domains. In this study, cognitive performance did not distinguish either probands or their first-degree relatives within traditional diagnostic groups (schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar disorder), but distinguished probands and relatives with and without lifetime psychosis manifestations independent of diagnostic categories. These data support the notion that schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar disorder present a clinical continuum with overlapping cognitive features defining the psychosis phenotype.

A shared low-frequency oscillatory rhythm abnormality in resting and sensory gating in schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVES: We hypothesized that an oscillatory abnormality that is consistently observed across various testing paradigms may index an elementary neuronal abnormality marking schizophrenia risk. METHODS: Compared neural oscillations in resting EEG and sensory gating conditions in schizophrenia patients (n=128), their first-degree relatives (n=80), and controls (n=110) and calculated phenotypic and/or genetic correlation of the abnormal measure across these conditions. RESULTS: Using a uniform, single trial analytical approach, we identified two prominent oscillatory characteristics in schizophrenia: (1) augmented neural oscillatory power was pervasive in medicated schizophrenia patients in most frequencies, most prominent in the theta-alpha range (4-11 Hz) across the two paradigms (all p<0.007); and (2) their first-degree relatives shared significantly augmented oscillatory energy in theta-alpha frequency in resting (p=0.002) and insufficient suppression of theta-alpha in sensory gating (p=0.01) compared with normal controls. Heritability estimates for theta-alpha related measures for resting and gating conditions ranged from 0.44 to 0.49 (p<0.03). The theta-alpha measures were correlated genetically with each other (RhoG=0.82±0.43; p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Augmented theta-alpha rhythm may be an elementary neurophysiological problem associated with genetic liability of schizophrenia. SIGNIFICANCE: This finding helps to refine key electrophysiologic biomarkers for genetic and clinical studies of schizophrenia.

Effects of moderate-dose treatment with varenicline on neurobiological and cognitive biomarkers in smokers and nonsmokers with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder.

CONTEXT: The administration of nicotine transiently improves many neurobiological and cognitive functions in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. It is not yet clear which nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtype or subtypes are responsible for these seemingly pervasive nicotinic effects in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. OBJECTIVE: Because α4ß2 is a key nAChR subtype for nicotinic actions, we investigated the effect of varenicline tartrate, a relatively specific α4ß2 partial agonist and antagonist, on key biomarkers that are associated with schizophrenia and are previously shown to be responsive to nicotinic challenge in humans. DESIGN: A double-blind, parallel, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder to examine the effects of varenicline on biomarkers at 2 weeks (short-term treatment) and 8 weeks (long-term treatment), using a slow titration and moderate dosing strategy for retaining α4ß2-specific effects while minimizing adverse effects. SETTING: Outpatient clinics. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 69 smoking and nonsmoking patients; 64 patients completed week 2, and 59 patients completed week 8. Intervention Varenicline. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prepulse inhibition, sensory gating, antisaccade, spatial working memory, eye tracking, processing speed, and sustained attention. RESULTS: A moderate dose of varenicline (1) significantly reduced the P50 sensory gating deficit in nonsmokers after long-term treatment (P = .006), (2) reduced startle reactivity (P = .02) regardless of baseline smoking status, and (3) improved executive function by reducing the antisaccadic error rate (P = .03) regardless of smoking status. A moderate dose of varenicline had no significant effect on spatial working memory, predictive and maintenance pursuit measures, processing speed, or sustained attention by Conners' Continuous Performance Test. Clinically, there was no evidence of exacerbation of psychiatric symptoms, psychosis, depression, or suicidality using a gradual titration (1-mg daily dose). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate-dose treatment with varenicline has a unique treatment profile on core schizophrenia-related biomarkers. Further development is warranted for specific nAChR compounds and dosing and duration strategies to target subgroups of schizophrenic patients with specific biological deficits.

Downregulated kynurenine 3-monooxygenase gene expression and enzyme activity in schizophrenia and genetic association with schizophrenia endophenotypes.

CONTEXT: Kynurenic acid, a metabolite of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation, is an antagonist at N-methyl-d-aspartate and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and modulates glutamate, dopamine, and acetylcholine signaling. Cortical kynurenic acid concentrations are elevated in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid of schizophrenia patients. The proximal cause may be an impairment of kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), a rate-limiting enzyme at the branching point of the kynurenine pathway. OBJECTIVES: To examine KMO messenger RNA expression and KMO enzyme activity in postmortem tissue from the frontal eye field (FEF; Brodmann area 6) obtained from schizophrenia individuals compared with healthy control individuals and to explore the relationship between KMO single-nucleotide polymorphisms and schizophrenia oculomotor endophenotypes. DESIGN: Case-control postmortem and clinical study. SETTING: Maryland Brain Collection, outpatient clinics. PARTICIPANTS: Postmortem specimens from schizophrenia patients (n = 32) and control donors (n = 32) and a clinical sample of schizophrenia patients (n = 248) and healthy controls (n = 228). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Comparison of quantitative KMO messenger RNA expression and KMO enzyme activity in postmortem FEF tissue between schizophrenia patients and controls and association of KMO single-nucleotide polymorphisms with messenger RNA expression in postmortem FEF and schizophrenia and oculomotor endophenotypes (ie, smooth pursuit eye movements and oculomotor delayed response). RESULTS: In postmortem tissue, we found a significant and correlated reduction in KMO gene expression and KMO enzyme activity in the FEF in schizophrenia patients. In the clinical sample, KMO rs2275163 was not associated with a diagnosis of schizophrenia but showed modest effects on predictive pursuit and visuospatial working memory endophenotypes. CONCLUSION: Our results provide converging lines of evidence implicating reduced KMO activity in the etiopathophysiology of schizophrenia and related neurocognitive deficits.

Dipyridamole monotherapy in schizophrenia: pilot of a novel treatment approach by modulation of purinergic signaling.

BACKGROUND: Emerging data indicate the neuromodulator adenosine may play a role in the therapeutics of schizophrenia. Adenosine A(2A) receptor stimulation exerts a functional antagonism at postsynaptic D(2) receptors. Data from animal models relevant to schizophrenia support a therapeutic effect of modulating adenosinergic transmission in the ventral striatum. One previous clinical trial showed superiority of adjunctive dipyridamole, an adenosine reuptake inhibitor, compared to placebo in ameliorating positive symptoms in schizophrenia patients. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of dipyridamole monotherapy of 200 mg/day on positive and negative symptoms, with the goal of determining dosing for future adjunctive studies in schizophrenia. METHODS: Twenty symptomatic schizophrenia participants were randomized to a 6-week double-blind trial comparing olanzapine (20 mg/day) to dipyridamole monotherapy (200 mg/day). Thirteen participants completed the treatment phase (eight on dipyridamole; five on olanzapine). RESULTS: The olanzapine group showed a trend (p = 0.08) for superiority on BPRS total scores (mean ± SD: total BPRS score decreasing from 36.8 ± 2.3 at week 1, to 33.2 ± 5.5 at the end of the study). The mean total BPRS scores decreased from 36.4 ± 5.3 to 34.0 ± 7.7 in the dipyridamole group. CONCLUSIONS: Although these pilot data do not support a significant antipsychotic effect of dipyridamole monotherapy, the results provide some evidence for examining dipyridamole (200 mg/day) as adjunct to symptomatic antipsychotic-treated schizophrenia patients.

Nicotine enhances but does not normalize visual sustained attention and the associated brain network in schizophrenia.

Sustained attention abnormality in schizophrenia is usually refractory to available treatment. Nicotine can transiently improve sustained attention in schizophrenia patients, although its neural mechanisms are unknown. Understanding the neural basis of this effect may lead to new treatment strategies for this cognitive deficit. Twenty schizophrenia patients and 24 healthy comparison smokers participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, randomized functional magnetic resonance imaging study comparing nicotine vs placebo patch on sustained attention, using the rapid visual information-processing task. Schizophrenia patients had impaired visual sustained attention accuracy and processing speed (all P's <.001) and showed significantly reduced activation in the frontal-parietal-cingulate-thalamic attention network compared with healthy comparison subjects. Nicotine administration enhanced accuracy and processing speed compared with placebo (all P's ≤.006), with no drug × diagnosis interactions. However, schizophrenia patients' task performance remained impaired during the nicotine condition, even when compared with healthy comparison subjects in the placebo condition (all P's ≤.01). Nicotine exerted no significant reversal of the impaired attention network associated with schizophrenia. Activations in brain regions associated with nicotine-induced behavioral improvement were not significantly different between patients and comparison subjects. Thus, nicotine transiently enhanced sustained attention similarly in schizophrenia patients and in healthy comparison smokers. The neural mechanisms for this nicotinic effect in schizophrenia appear similar to those for healthy comparison subjects. However, nicotine, at least in a single sustained dose, does not normalize impaired sustained attention and its associated brain network in schizophrenia. These findings provide guidance for developing new treatment strategies for the sustained attention deficit in schizophrenia.

A genetically modulated, intrinsic cingulate circuit supports human nicotine addiction.

Whole-genome searches have identified nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha5-alpha3-beta4 subunit gene variants that are associated with smoking. How genes support this addictive and high-risk behavior through their expression in the brain remains poorly understood. Here we show that a key alpha5 gene variant Asp398Asn is associated with a dorsal anterior cingulate-ventral striatum/extended amygdala circuit, such that the "risk allele" decreases the intrinsic resting functional connectivity strength in this circuit. Importantly, this effect is observed independently in nonsmokers and smokers, although the circuit strength distinguishes smokers from nonsmokers, predicts addiction severity in smokers, and is not secondary to smoking per se, thus representing a trait-like circuitry biomarker. This same circuit is further impaired in people with mental illnesses, who have the highest rate of smoking. Identifying where and how brain circuits link genes to smoking provides practical neural circuitry targets for new treatment development.

Genetics and intermediate phenotypes of the schizophrenia--bipolar disorder boundary.

Categorization of psychotic illnesses into schizophrenic and affective psychoses remains an ongoing controversy. Although Kraepelinian subtyping of psychosis was historically beneficial, modern genetic and neurophysiological studies do not support dichotomous conceptualization of psychosis. Evidence suggests that schizophrenia and bipolar disorder rather present a clinical continuum with partially overlapping symptom dimensions, neurophysiology, genetics and treatment responses. Recent large scale genetic studies have produced inconsistent findings and exposed an urgent need for re-thinking phenomenology-based approach in psychiatric research. Epidemiological, linkage and molecular genetic studies, as well as studies in intermediate phenotypes (neurocognitive, neurophysiological and anatomical imaging) in schizophrenia and bipolar disorders are reviewed in order to support a dimensional conceptualization of psychosis. Overlapping and unique genetic and intermediate phenotypic signatures of the two psychoses are comprehensively recapitulated. Alternative strategies which may be implicated into genetic research are discussed.

Gamma and delta neural oscillations and association with clinical symptoms under subanesthetic ketamine.

Several electrical neural oscillatory abnormalities have been associated with schizophrenia, although the underlying mechanisms of these oscillatory problems are unclear. Animal studies suggest that one of the key mechanisms of neural oscillations is through glutamatergic regulation; therefore, neural oscillations may provide a valuable animal-clinical interface on studying glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia. To identify glutamatergic control of neural oscillation relevant to human subjects, we studied the effects of ketamine, an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist that can mimic some clinical aspects of schizophrenia, on auditory-evoked neural oscillations using a paired-click paradigm. This was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of ketamine vs saline infusion on 10 healthy subjects. Clinically, infusion of ketamine in subanesthetic dose significantly increased thought disorder, withdrawal-retardation, and dissociative symptoms. Ketamine significantly augmented high-frequency oscillations (gamma band at 40-85 Hz, p=0.006) and reduced low-frequency oscillations (delta band at 1-5 Hz, p<0.001) compared with placebo. Importantly, the combined effect of increased gamma and reduced delta frequency oscillations was significantly associated with more withdrawal-retardation symptoms experienced during ketamine administration (p=0.02). Ketamine also reduced gating of the theta-alpha (5-12 Hz) range oscillation, an effect that mimics previously described deficits in schizophrenia patients and their first-degree relatives. In conclusion, acute ketamine appeared to mimic some aspects of neural oscillatory deficits in schizophrenia, and showed an opposite effect on scalp-recorded gamma vs low-frequency oscillations. These electrical oscillatory indexes of subanesthetic ketamine can be potentially used to cross-examine glutamatergic pharmacological effects in translational animal and human studies.

Association of nicotine addiction and nicotine's actions with separate cingulate cortex functional circuits.

CONTEXT: Understanding the mechanisms underlying nicotine addiction to develop more effective treatment is a public health priority. Research consistently shows that nicotine transiently improves multiple cognitive functions. However, using nicotine replacement to treat nicotine addiction yields generally inconsistent results. Although this dichotomy is well known, the reasons are unclear. Imaging studies showed that nicotine challenges almost always involve the cingulate cortex, suggesting that this locus may be a key region associated with nicotine addiction and its treatment. OBJECTIVE: To identify cingulate functional circuits that are associated with the severity of nicotine addiction and study how nicotine affects them by means of region-specific resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. DESIGN: Double-blind, placebo-controlled study. SETTING: Outpatient clinics. PARTICIPANTS: Nineteen healthy smokers. INTERVENTION: Single-dose (21- or 35-mg) nicotine patch. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Correlation of nicotine addiction severity and cingulate resting-state functional connectivity, and effects of short-term nicotine administration on connectivity strength. RESULTS: Clearly separated pathways that correlated with nicotine addiction vs nicotine's action were found. The severity of nicotine addiction was associated with the strength of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)-striatal circuits, which were not modified by nicotine patch administration. In contrast, short-term nicotine administration enhanced cingulate-neocortical functional connectivity patterns, which may play a role in nicotine's cognition-enhancing properties. CONCLUSIONS: Resting-state dACC-striatum functional connectivity may serve as a circuit-level biomarker for nicotine addiction, and the development of new therapeutic agents aiming to enhance the dACC-striatum functional pathways may be effective for nicotine addiction treatment.

Is motion perception deficit in schizophrenia a consequence of eye-tracking abnormality?

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown that schizophrenia patients have motion perception deficit, which was thought to cause eye-tracking abnormality in schizophrenia. However, eye movement closely interacts with motion perception. The known eye-tracking difficulties in schizophrenia patients may interact with their motion perception. METHODS: Two speed discrimination experiments were conducted in a within-subject design. In experiment 1, the stimulus duration was 150 msec to minimize the chance of eye-tracking occurrence. In experiment 2, the duration was increased to 300 msec, increasing the possibility of eye movement intrusion. Regular eye-tracking performance was evaluated in a third experiment. RESULTS: At 150 msec, speed discrimination thresholds did not differ between schizophrenia patients (n = 38) and control subjects (n = 33). At 300 msec, patients had significantly higher thresholds than control subjects (p = .03). Furthermore, frequencies of eye tracking during the 300 msec stimulus were significantly correlated with speed discrimination in control subjects (p = .01) but not in patients, suggesting that eye-tracking initiation may benefit control subjects but not patients. The frequency of eye tracking during speed discrimination was not significantly related to regular eye-tracking performance. CONCLUSIONS: Speed discrimination, per se, is not impaired in schizophrenia patients. The observed abnormality appears to be a consequence of impairment in generating or integrating the feedback information from eye movements. This study introduces a novel approach to motion perception studies and highlights the importance of concurrently measuring eye movements to understand interactions between these two systems; the results argue for a conceptual revision regarding motion perception abnormality in schizophrenia.