RNA therapeutics for infectious diseases.

Ribonucleic acids (RNAs), including the messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), play important roles in living organisms and viruses. In recent years, the RNA-based technologies including the RNAs inhibiting other RNA activities, the RNAs targeting proteins, the RNAs reprograming genetic information, and the RNAs encoding therapeutical proteins, are useful methods to apply in prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines. In this review, we summarize and highlight the current application of the RNA therapeutics, especially on mRNA vaccines which have potential for prevention and treatment against human and animal infectious diseases.

Recent applications of RNA therapeutic in clinics.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) therapy has been extensively researched for several decades and has garnered significant attention in recent years owing to its potential in treating a broad spectrum of diseases. It falls under the domain of gene therapy, leveraging RNA molecules as a therapeutic approach in medicine. RNA can be targeted using small-molecule drugs, or RNA molecules themselves can serve as drugs by interacting with proteins or other RNA molecules. While several RNA drugs have been granted clinical approval, numerous RNA-based therapeutics are presently undergoing clinical investigation or testing for various conditions, including genetic disorders, viral infections, and diverse forms of cancer. These therapies offer several advantages, such as high specificity, enabling precise targeting of disease-related genes or proteins, cost-effectiveness, and a relatively straightforward manufacturing process. Nevertheless, successful translation of RNA therapies into widespread clinical use necessitates addressing challenges related to delivery, stability, and potential off-target effects. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the general concepts of various classes of RNA-based therapeutics, the mechanistic basis of their function, as well as recent applications of RNA therapeutic in clinics.

RNA therapeutics in cancer treatment.

RNA therapeutics are a class of drugs that use RNA molecules to treat diseases, including cancer. RNA therapeutics work by targeting specific genes or proteins involved in the disease process, with the aim of blocking or altering their activity to ultimately halt or reverse the disease progression. The use of RNA therapeutics in cancer treatment has shown great potential, as they offer the ability to specifically target cancer cells while leaving healthy cells intact. This is in contrast to traditional chemotherapy and radiation treatments, which can damage healthy cells and cause unpleasant side effects. The field of RNA therapeutics is rapidly advancing, with several types of RNA molecules being developed for cancer treatment, including small interfering RNA, microRNA, mRNA, and RNA aptamers. Each type of RNA molecule has unique properties and mechanisms of action, allowing for targeted and personalized cancer treatments. In this chapter, we will explore the different types of RNA therapeutics used in cancer treatment, their mechanisms of action, and their potential applications in treating different types of cancer. We will also discuss the challenges and opportunities in the development and research of RNA therapeutics for cancer, as well as the future outlook for this promising field.

Molecular characterisation of the current high prevalence of the new CPV-2c variants in the Southern Vietnamese dogs signifies a widespread in the worldwide dog population.

BACKGROUND: Canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) is known as the primary etiological agent cause of acute gastroenteritis, myocarditis and death of canids worldwide. In Vietnam, although CPV-2 infection and its outbreaks are the most important risk factors of the canine's health concern, lack of available information about the molecular epidemiology of the CPV-2. OBJECTIVES: In this study, the complete coding sequences of 10 CPV-2 strains collected from dogs vaccinated with CPV-2 vaccination were analysed to better understand the genomic characteristics of the current circulating CPV-2 in Vietnam. METHODS: Ten CPV-specific PCR-positive rectal swab samples were collected from dogs with acute symptoms of haemorrhagic diarrhoea and vomiting in Vietnam in 2019. The complete coding sequences of these CPV strains were analysed to determine their phylogeny and genetic relationship with other available CPV strains globally. RESULTS: Analysis of the VP2 gene sequences demonstrated that the studied strains belonged to the new CPV-2c variants with the unique mutations at amino acids 5Ala-Gly and 447Iso-Met . Phylogenetic tree analysis indicated that the studied strains share a common evolutionary origin with the current CPV-2c strains circulating in dogs in Asia countries, including China, Thailand, Taiwan and Mongolia, in recent years. Low sequence identity between the studied strains and commercial vaccine strains was observed. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides deep insights into the molecular characteristics, genetic diversity, and evolution of circulating CPV-2 strains in Vietnam. We recommend more studies to estimate the effectiveness of the CPV vaccine and the need to continue developing other effective vaccination essential to better control the widespread of these new CPV-2 variants.

Human papillomavirus prevalence and genotype distribution in Vietnamese male patients between 2016 and 2020.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in men is a serious issue because it is associated with genital warts, anogenital cancers, and HPV transmission to their sex partners. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and genotypes of HPVs in Vietnamese male patients hospitalized with sexually transmitted infection (STI) symptoms between 2016 and 2020 by using polymerase chain reaction and reverse dot blot hybridization analysis. HPV DNA was detected in 191/941 (20.3%) penile cell samples. The HPV patient's mean age was 30.3 in the range of 16- and 69-year-old. The highest HPV prevalence (84.7%) was found in patients between 20- and 39-year-old. A total of 313 HPV genotypes were identified. The multiple-infection rate was 42.9%. The most common high-risk (HR)-HPV genotypes were HPV-16 (8.0%), HPV-51 (7.7%), HPV-52 (4.8%), HPV-56 (4.2%), and HPV-18 (3.8%). Furthermore, HPV-11 and HPV-6 genotypes were the two most common low-risk (LR)-HPV genotypes with the rate of 36.7% and 21.4%, respectively. Notably, HPV-52 was found circulating in Vietnam for the first time. In conclusion, this study results showed that HPV prevalence in Vietnamese male patients was common and diverse. In addition, regarding public health and cancer prevention, the inclusion of the HPV vaccination into the national vaccination program for both men and women is recommended.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase inhibitor NVP­TAE684 suppresses the proliferation of human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is known to be an important therapeutic target in various types of cancer. NVP­TAE684, a well­known inhibitor of ALK, was revealed to exert antitumor effects in several different malignancies. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for these antitumor effects in cancer cells, including pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells, remain unknown. In the present study, NVP­TAE684 was investigated for its antitumor effects towards pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells. MTT assay, western blot analysis, flow cytometry, caspase­3/7 activity assay and Trypan blue exclusion assay were used and it was revealed that NVP­TAE684 suppressed the proliferation of seven human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell lines (AsPC­1, Panc­1, MIA PaCa­2, Capan­1, CFPAC­1, Colo­357 and BxPC­3), and significantly increased G2/M arrest and apoptotic cell death. Furthermore, NVP­TAE684 inhibited the phosphorylation of ALK at Y1604, as well as that of downstream mediators such as AKT (S473) and ERK1/2 (Y202/T204). Notably, knocking down ALK with siRNAs also decreased proliferation and promoted G2/M arrest and apoptosis. Furthermore, inhibition of ALK with NVP­TAE684 or siRNA synergistically enhanced gemcitabine­induced cell death by inducing apoptosis. In conclusion, the findings of the present study indicated that NVP­TAE684 exerted its antitumor effects by inducing G2/M arrest and apoptosis via the inhibition of the ALK signaling pathway, and suggests its potential use as an antitumor agent against pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

A novel signature predicts recurrence risk and therapeutic response in breast cancer patients.

Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase (ASMT) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of melatonin. Although melatonin has been shown to exhibit anticancer activity and prevents endocrine resistance in breast cancer, the role of ASMT in breast cancer progression remains unclear. In this retrospective study, we analyzed gene expression profiles in 27 data sets on 7244 patients from 11 countries. We found that ASMT expression was significantly reduced in breast cancer tumors relative to healthy tissue. Among breast cancer patients, those with higher levels of ASMT expression had better relapse-free survival outcomes and longer metastasis-free survival times. Following treatment with tamoxifen, patients with greater ASMT expression experienced longer periods before relapse or distance recurrence. Motivated by these results, we devised an ASMT gene signature that can correctly identify low-risk cases with a sensitivity and specificity of 0.997 and 0.916, respectively. This signature was robustly validated using 23 independent breast cancer mRNA array data sets from different platforms (consisting of 5800 patients) and an RNAseq data set from TCGA (comprising 1096 patients). Intriguingly, patients who are classified as high-risk by the signature benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy, and those with grade II tumors who are classified as low-risk exhibit improved overall survival and distance relapse-free outcomes following endocrine therapy. Together, our findings more clearly elucidate the roles of ASMT, provide strategies for improving the efficacy of tamoxifen treatment and help to identify those patients who may maximally benefit from adjuvant or endocrine therapies.

Direct colorimetric LAMP assay for rapid detection of African swine fever virus: A validation study during an outbreak in Vietnam.

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly infectious viral disease with high mortality. The most recent ASF outbreak in Vietnam began in 2019, posing a threat to spread to the neighbouring Asian countries. Without a commercial vaccine or efficient chemotherapeutics, rapid diagnosis and necessary biosecurity procedures are required to control the disease. While the diagnostic method of ASF recommended by the World Organization of Animal Health is real-time PCR, the ideal diagnosis procedure including master mix setup, template extraction and a high-cost qPCR equipment for many samples being tested simultaneously is not portable. In this study, a colorimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay was modified and evaluated for ASF virus detection using crude serum samples collected from domestic pigs in Vietnam during the 2019 outbreak. The LAMP results can be readily visualized to the naked eye within 30 min without the requirement of DNA extraction and sophisticated equipment. The sensitivity, specificity and limit of detection of direct colorimetric LAMP assay were comparable to a commercial diagnostic real-time PCR kit. Results strongly indicate that the adapted colorimetric LAMP assay has a remarkable potential for the in-field diagnosis of ASF.

Isolation of Penicillium citrinum from Roots of Clerodendron cyrtophyllum and Application in Biosynthesis of Aglycone Isoflavones from Soybean Waste Fermentation.

Soybeans offer an abundant source of isoflavones, which confer useful bioactivities when existing in aglycone forms. The conversion of isoflavones into aglycones via fermentation of soybean products is often realized by ß-glucosidase, an enzyme produced by fungi. In this study, a filamentous fungus, Clerodendron cyrtophyllum, was isolated from root of Clerodendron cyrtophyllum Turcz, which was able to produce the highest activity of ß-glucosidase up to 33.72 U/mL at 144 h during fermentation on Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB). The obtained fungus was grown on isoflavones-rich soybean extract to produce genistein and daidzein, achieving the conversion rate of 98.7%. Genistein and daidzein were isolated and purified by column chromatography using hexane/acetone (29:1/1:1), reaching purities of over 90% of total isoflavones, as identified and determined by TLC, LC-MS/MS, and 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy. These results imply that the isolated P. citrinum is a potential fungal strain for industrial-scale production of genistein and daidzein from isoflavones-containing soybean extracts. These products may serve as potential raw materials for manufacture of functional foods that are based on aglycones.

Bioinformatic identification and expression analysis of the chicken B cell lymphoma (BCL) gene.

BACKGROUND: B cell lymphoma (BCL) families play an important role in apoptosis as a growth factor, cell death programming, cytokine expression and immune-related genes expression. OBJECTIVES: In this study, to investigate the roles of BCLs, we performed genome-wide identification, expression and functional analyses of the BCL family in chicken. METHODS: Chicken BCLs genes were identified and analyzed by using bioinformatics approach. Expression profiles and Hierarchical cluster analysis of the BCLs genes in different chicken tissues were obtained from the genome-wide RNA-seq in the GEO, and Cluster and Java Treeview, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 16 BCLs genes were identified from the chicken genome, which could be further classified into five distinct groups in the phylogenetic tree. On the other hand, the interaction among BCLs proteins and between BCLs proteins with NF-κB subunits are limited, indicating that the remaining the functions of BCLs protein could be investigated in chicken. Moreover, KEGG pathway analysis indicated that BCL gene family was involved in regulation of apoptotic and immune response. Finally, BCL gene family was differentially expressed in chicken tissues, pathogen infection and growth stages of early chicken early embryo. CONCLUSION: This study provides significant insights into the potential functions of BCLs in chicken, including the regulation of apoptosis, cell death and expression of immune-related genes.

Torsion of Ileum Due To Giant Meckel's Diverticulum - A Case Report.

BACKGROUND: Meckel's diverticulum (MD) is detected in approximately 2% of all individuals and only 2-4% MD patients may develop symptoms. Small intestinal obstruction is a frequent complication in adults. CASE REPORT: A 48-year-old male was admitted to emergency department for high intestinal obstruction symptoms. The imaging examinations were failed to detect the underlying causes. A median laparotomy revealed small bowel obstruction (SBO) due to a segment of ileum twisted around a giant MD axis. CONCLUSION: Thus, a giant MD generating torsion of ileum is an unusual complication. Preoperative diagnosis is challenging. Emergency surgery is preferred to make an accurate diagnosis and for treatment.

Evolutionary phylodynamics of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes O and A circulating in Vietnam.

BACKGROUND: Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is one of the highest risk factors that affects the animal industry of the country. The virus causes production loss and high ratio mortality in young cloven-hoofed animals in Vietnam. The VP1 coding gene of 80 FMDV samples (66 samples of the serotype O and 14 samples of the serotype A) collected from endemic outbreaks during 2006-2014 were analyzed to investigate their phylogeny and genetic relationship with other available FMDVs globally. RESULTS: Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the serotype O strains were clustered into two distinct viral topotypes (the SEA and ME-SA), while the serotype A strains were all clustered into the genotype IX. Among the study strains, the amino acid sequence identities were shared at a level of 90.1-100, 92.9-100, and 92.8-100% for the topotypes SEA, ME-SA, and genotype IX, respectively. Substitutions leading to changes in the amino acid sequence, which are critical for the VP1 antigenic sites were also identified. Our results showed that the studied strains are most closely related to the recent FMDV isolates from Southeast Asian countries (Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Laos), but are distinct from the earlier FMDV isolates within the genotypes. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides important evidence of recent movement of FMDVs serotype O and A into Vietnam within the last decade and their genetic accumulation to be closely related to strains causing FMD in surrounding countries.

Differentiation of RotaTeq® vaccine strains from wild-type strains using NSP3 gene in reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay.

RotaTeq® is a live attenuated human-bovine reassortant vaccine against rotaviruses that is used worldwide. However, shedding of the virus used in RotaTeq® has been detected in the feces of children following vaccination by the oral route, possibly affecting community immunity. Therefore, a simple and efficient method to discriminate between virulent and RotaTeq® vaccine strains is required. In this study, a novel one-step multiplex reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay targeting the NSP3 gene was developed to detect RotaTeq® vaccine strains in fecal samples. RotaTeq® vaccine viruses were successfully distinguished from known wild-type rotavirus genotypes. In addition, the developed assay was able to detect rotaviruses in clinical stool samples obtained from South Korea during the 2011-2013 rotavirus seasons. Of the 1106 stool specimens from children with acute gastroenteritis that were screened, 286 rotaviruses were genotyped. RotaTeq® vaccine strains were identified in 39 samples (13.6%). The novel RT-PCR assay that was developed could be used to detect and discriminate between RotaTeq® vaccine strains that are shed in fecal matter, and to estimate the quantification of virus that has been shed after vaccination.

Evidence of multiple reassortment events of feline-to-human rotaviruses based on a rare human G3P[9] rotavirus isolated from a patient with acute gastroenteritis.

A rare human/feline-like rotavirus G3P[9] strain, CAU14-1-262, from a 2-year-old girl with severe gastroenteritis was isolated and sequenced. The 11 gene segments of the CAU14-1-262 strain possessed a novel genotype constellation, G3-P[9]-I3-R3-C3-M3-A3-N3-T1-E3-H6, which was identified for the first time. Phylogenetic analysis of this strain identified the following genome origins: VP7, VP4, VP6, VP1-VP3, NSP1, NSP2, and NSP4 genes possessed an AU-1-like genotype 3 constellation with high sequence identity to those of the feline and human/feline-like rotaviruses; NSP5 possessed a H6 lineage, with highest sequence identity to the human/feline-like E2541 strain; and the NSP3 gene possessed a Wa-like genotype 1 constellation with high sequence identity to those of the of human rotaviruses. These results provided evidence of multiple reassortment events in G3P[9] rotavirus CAU14-1-262 and possibility of feline-to-human interspecies transmission.

Emergence of Norovirus GII.17 Variants among Children with Acute Gastroenteritis in South Korea.

Of 1,050 fecal specimens collected from January 2013 to August 2015 from children with acute gastroenteritis, 149 (14.2%) were found to be positive for norovirus. Norovirus GII was the most predominant genogroup (98.65%; 147 of 149). The genotypes detected in this study were GI (2; 1.3%), GII.Pe-GII.4 (109; 73.1%), GII.P17-GII.17 (16; 10.7%), GII.P12-GII.3 (8; 5.4%), GII.P12-GII.12 (8; 5.4%), GII.P4-GII.4 (5; 3.4%), and the recombinant GII.Pe-GII.17 (1; 0.7%). Of these, the novel GII.17 strain was the second most predominant, and the number of affected children appeared to continuously increase over time (2013 [2; 4.4%], 2014 [4; 9.3%], and 2015 [10; 16.4%]). Phylogenetic analysis of the full genome and ORF1, ORF2, and ORF3 nucleotide sequences showed that GII.17 was grouped in cluster III with other strains isolated from 2013 to 2015 and had a different evolutionary history from strains collected in 1978 to 2002 and 2005 to 2009 formed clusters I and II. However, the phylogenetic trees also showed that cluster III was divided into subclusters IIIa (CAU-55 and CAU-85) and IIIb (Kawasaki 2014) (CAU-193, CAU-265, CAU-267, CAU-283, and CAU-289). Comparative analysis of the VP1 capsid protein using 15 complete amino acid sequences from noroviruses isolated from 1978 to 2015 showed 99 amino acid changes. These results could be helpful for epidemiological studies to understand circulating norovirus genotypes in population.

Intersubtype Reassortments of H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses Isolated from Quail.

H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses are considered a threat to national animal industries, causing production losses and high mortality in domestic poultry. In recent years, quail has become a popular terrestrial poultry species raised for production of meat and eggs in Asia. In this study, to better understand the roles of quail in H5N1 viral evolution, two H5N1-positive samples, designated A/quail/Vietnam/CVVI-49/2010 (CVVI-49/2010) and A/quail/Vietnam/CVVI-50/2014 (CVVI-50/2014), were isolated from quail during H5N1 outbreaks in Vietnam, and their whole genome were analyzed. The phylogenetic analysis reveals new evolutionary variation in the worldwide H5N1 viruses. The quail HA genes were clustered into clades 1.1.1 (CVVI-49/2010) and clade 2.3.2.1c (CVVI-50/2014), which may have evolved from viruses circulating from chickens and/or ducks in Cambodia, mainland of China, Taiwan, Indonesia, and South Korea in recent years. Interestingly, the M2 gene of the CVVI-49/2010 strain contained amino acid substitutions at position 26L-I and 31S-N that are related to amantadine-resistance. In particular, the CVVI-50/2014 strain revealed evidence of multiple intersubtype reassortment events between virus clades 2.3.2.1c, 2.3.2.1b, and 2.3.2.1a. Data from this study supports the possible role of quail as an important intermediate host in avian influenza virus evolution. Therefore, additional surveillance is needed to monitor these HPAI viruses both serologically and virologically in quail.

The evolutionary dynamics of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 in south-central Vietnam reveals multiple clades evolving from Chinese and Cambodian viruses.

In Vietnam, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), such as that caused by H5N1 viruses, is the most highly contagious infectious disease that has been affecting domestic poultry in recent years. Vietnam might be an evolutionary hotspot and a potential source of globally pandemic strains. However, few studies have reported viruses circulating in the south-central region of Vietnam. In the present study, 47 H5N1-positive samples were collected from both vaccinated and unvaccinated poultry farms in the South Central Coast region of Vietnam during 2013-2014, and their genetic diversity was analyzed. A common sequence motif for HPAI virus was identified at HA-cleavage sites in all samples: either RERRRKR/G (clades 2.3.2.1c and 2.3.2.1a) or REGRRKKR/G (clade 1.1.2). Phylogenetic analysis of HA genes identified three clades of HPAI H5N1: 1.1.2 (n=1), 2.3.2.1a (n=1), and 2.3.2.1c (n=45). The phylogenetic analysis indicated that these Vietnamese clades may have evolved from Chinese and Cambodian virus clades isolated in 2012-2013 but are less closely related to the clades detected from the Tyva Republic, Bulgaria, Mongolia, Japan, and Korea in 2009-2011. Detection of the coexistence of virus clades 2.3.2.1 and the very virulent 1.1.2 in the south-central regions suggests their local importance and highlights concerns regarding their spread, both northwards and southwards, as well as the potential for reassortment. The obtained data highlight the importance of regular identification of viral evolution and the development and use of region-specific vaccines.

Characterization of RotaTeq® vaccine-derived rotaviruses in South Korean infants with rotavirus gastroenteritis.

Genotyping of human rotaviruses was performed in 191 rotavirus-positive fecal samples collected from infants with acute gastroenteritis, 3 years after the introduction of two rotavirus vaccines in South Korea. Among these samples, the most prevalent rotavirus genotype was G3P[8] (30.9%), followed by G1P[8] (27.7%), G4P[6] (15.2%), and G9P[8] (5.8%). Sequence analysis identified RotaTeq® vaccine-derived strains in 12 samples (6.3%), comprising 11 G1P[8] human-bovine double reassortant rotaviruses and 1 G1P[5] human-bovine single reassortant rotavirus. It is of note that cross-reactivity between the current G4-specific typing primer and RotaTeq®-specific G1 genotypes was found. A trace of the clinical and environmental routes of the rotavirus vaccine strains revealed unexpected complexity, and the diagnostic protocol for rotaviruses may require modification by using either another typing primer set or nucleotide sequence analysis.

Evolutionary phylodynamics of Korean noroviruses reveals a novel GII.2/GII.10 recombination event.

Viral gastroenteritis is the most common causal agent of public health problems worldwide. Noroviruses cause nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis in humans of all ages. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of norovirus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis admitted to university hospitals in South Korea. We also analyzed the genetic diversity of the viruses and identified novel recombination events among the identified viral strains. Of 502 children with acute gastroenteritis admitted to our three hospitals between January 2011 and March 2012, genotyping of human noroviruses was performed in 171 (34%) norovirus-positive samples. Of these samples, 170 (99.5%) were in genogroup II (GII), while only one (0.5%) was in genogroup I (GI). The most common GII strain was the GII.4-2006b variant (n = 96, 56.5%), followed by GII.6 (n = 23, 13.5%), GII.12 (n = 22, 12.9%), GII.3 (n = 20, 11.8%), GII.2 (n = 6, 3.5%), GII.b (n = 2, 1.2%), and GII.10 (n = 1, 0.6%). Potential recombination events (polymerase/capsid) were detected in 39 GII strains (22.9%), and the most frequent genotypes were GII.4/GII.12 (n = 12, 30.8%), GII.4/GII.6 (n = 12, 30.8%), GII.4/GII.3 (n = 8, 20.5%), GII.b/GII.3 (n = 3, 7.7%), GII.16/GII.2 (n = 2, 5.1%), GII.4/GII.2 (n = 1, 2.6%), and GII.2/GII.10 (n = 1, 2.6%). For the first time, a novel GII.2/GII.10 recombination was detected; we also identified the GII.16/GII.2 strain for the first time in South Korea. Our data provided important insights into new recombination events, which may prove valuable for predicting the emergence of circulating norovirus strains with global epidemic potential.

A systematic review of genetic diversity of human rotavirus circulating in South Korea.

Rotavirus infections continue to be the leading cause of severe diarrhea in young Korean children. Rotavirus data acquired from uninterrupted surveillance studies between 1989 and 2009 in South Korea were analyzed to better understand the genetic diversity and evolution. The relationship between rotaviruses and the currently licensed rotavirus vaccine viruses was also examined. The most prevalent rotavirus strains, with genotype G1P[8], followed by G3P[8], G4P[6], and G2P[4], accounted for approximately 76.7% of the total identified strains, and more recently, rotavirus G9P[8] has significance increased to be the fifth most common genotype. Phylogenetic analyses underscored the heterogeneity between viral populations within each genotype, with different lineages and sub-lineages. Although the currently licensed rotavirus vaccines are effective, safe, and economical, additional data from rotavirus monitoring is necessary to evaluate the efficacy of these vaccines for their sustained use in South Korea. The present study provides comprehensive and up-to-date information regarding the epidemiology, genetic diversity, and evolution of the circulating rotaviruses in South Korea.