Low but Increasing Prevalence of Reduced Beta-lactam Susceptibility Among Invasive Group B Streptococcal Isolates, US Population-Based Surveillance, 1998-2018.

BACKGROUND: Invasive group B Streptococcus (iGBS) isolates with mutations in the pbp2x gene that encodes penicillin binding protein 2x can have reduced beta-lactam susceptibility (RBLS) when susceptible by Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) criteria. We assessed the emergence and characteristics of RBLS strains in US iGBS isolates. METHODS: We analyzed iGBS isolates from 8 multistate population-based surveillance sites from 1998 to 2018. During 1998-2014, phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility was determined by broth microdilution; criteria for 6 antibiotics were used to identify RBLS, followed by whole-genome sequencing (WGS). WGS for all isolates was added in 2015; we used phenotypic and genotypic results of >2000 isolates to validate phenotypic RBLS criteria and genotypic predictions. Since 2016, WGS has been used to screen for RBLS with broth microdilution confirmation of predicted RBLS isolates. RESULTS: Of 28 269 iGBS isolates, 28 (0.1%) were nonsusceptible by CLSI criteria; 137 (0.5%) met RBLS criteria. RBLS isolates were detected in all Active Bacterial Core surveillance sites. The RBLS proportion increased, especially since 2013 (odds ratio, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.03-1.32); the proportion that were nonsusceptible remained stable. CONCLUSIONS: The RBSL proportion was low but increasing among US iGBS isolates. Ongoing monitoring is needed to detect emerging threats to prevention and treatment of GBS infections.

Multistate, Population-Based Distributions of Candidate Vaccine Targets, Clonal Complexes, and Resistance Features of Invasive Group B Streptococci Within the United States, 2015-2017.

BACKGROUND: Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is a leading cause of neonatal sepsis and meningitis and an important cause of invasive infections in pregnant and nonpregnant adults. Vaccines targeting capsule polysaccharides and common proteins are under development. METHODS: Using whole genome sequencing, a validated bioinformatics pipeline, and targeted antimicrobial susceptibility testing, we characterized 6340 invasive GBS isolates recovered during 2015-2017 through population-based Active Bacterial Core surveillance (ABCs) in 8 states. RESULTS: Six serotypes accounted for 98.4% of isolates (21.8% Ia, 17.6% V, 17.1% II, 15.6% III, 14.5% Ib, 11.8% IV). Most (94.2%) isolates were in 11 clonal complexes (CCs) comprised of multilocus sequence types identical or closely related to sequence types 1, 8, 12, 17, 19, 22, 23, 28, 88, 452, and 459. Fifty-four isolates (0.87%) had point mutations within pbp2x associated with nonsusceptibility to 1 or more ß-lactam antibiotics. Genes conferring resistance to macrolides and/or lincosamides were found in 56% of isolates; 85.2% of isolates had tetracycline resistance genes. Two isolates carrying vanG were vancomycin nonsusceptible (minimum inhibitory concentration = 2 µg/mL). Nearly all isolates possessed capsule genes, 1-2 of the 3 main pilus gene clusters, and 1 of 4 homologous alpha/Rib family determinants. Presence of the hvgA virulence gene was primarily restricted to serotype III/CC17 isolates (465 isolates), but 8 exceptions (7 IV/CC452 and 1 IV/CC17) were observed. CONCLUSIONS: This first comprehensive, population-based quantitation of strain features in the United States suggests that current vaccine candidates should have good coverage. The ß-lactams remain appropriate for first-line treatment and prophylaxis, but emergence of nonsusceptibility warrants ongoing monitoring.

Age-Related Differences in Hospitalization Rates, Clinical Presentation, and Outcomes Among Older Adults Hospitalized With Influenza-U.S. Influenza Hospitalization Surveillance Network (FluSurv-NET).

BACKGROUND: Rates of influenza hospitalizations differ by age, but few data are available regarding differences in laboratory-confirmed rates among adults aged ≥65 years. METHODS: We evaluated age-related differences in influenza-associated hospitalization rates, clinical presentation, and outcomes among 19 760 older adults with laboratory-confirmed influenza at 14 FluSurv-NET sites during the 2011-2012 through 2014-2015 influenza seasons using 10-year age groups. RESULTS: There were large stepwise increases in the population rates of influenza hospitalization with each 10-year increase in age. Rates ranged from 101-417, 209-1264, and 562-2651 per 100 000 persons over 4 influenza seasons in patients aged 65-74 years, 75-84 years, and ≥85 years, respectively. Hospitalization rates among adults aged 75-84 years and ≥85 years were 1.4-3.0 and 2.2-6.4 times greater, respectively, than rates for adults aged 65-74 years. Among patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed influenza, there were age-related differences in demographics, medical histories, and symptoms and signs at presentation. Compared to hospitalized patients aged 65-74 years, patients aged ≥85 years had higher odds of pneumonia (aOR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.0-1.3; P = .01) and in-hospital death or transfer to hospice (aOR, 2.1; 95% CI, 1.7-2.6; P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: Age-related differences in the incidence and severity of influenza hospitalizations among adults aged ≥65 years can inform prevention and treatment efforts, and data should be analyzed and reported using additional age strata.

Epidemiology of Invasive Group B Streptococcal Infections Among Nonpregnant Adults in the United States, 2008-2016.

Importance: Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is an important cause of invasive bacterial disease. Previous studies have shown a substantial and increasing burden of GBS infections among nonpregnant adults, particularly older adults and those with underlying medical conditions. Objective: To update trends of invasive GBS disease among US adults using population-based surveillance data. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this population-based surveillance study, a case was defined as isolation of GBS from a sterile site between January 1, 2008, and December 31, 2016. Demographic and clinical data were abstracted from medical records. Rates were calculated using US Census data. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing and serotyping were performed on a subset of isolates. Case patients were residents of 1 of 10 catchment areas of the Active Bacterial Core surveillance (ABCs) network, representing approximately 11.5% of the US adult population. Patients were included in the study if they were nonpregnant, were 18 years or older, were residents of an ABCs catchment site, and had a positive GBS culture from a normally sterile body site. Main Outcomes and Measures: Trends in GBS cases overall and by demographic characteristics (sex, age, and race), underlying clinical conditions of patients, and isolate characteristics are described. Results: The ABCs network detected 21 250 patients with invasive GBS among nonpregnant adults from 2008 through 2016. The GBS incidence in this population increased from 8.1 cases per 100 000 population in 2008 to 10.9 in 2016 (P = .002 for trend). There were 3146 cases reported in 2016 (59% male; median age, 64 years; age range, 18-103 years). The GBS incidence was higher among men than women and among blacks than whites and increased with age. Projected to the US population, an estimated 27 729 cases of invasive disease and 1541 deaths occurred in the United States in 2016. Ninety-five percent of cases in 2016 occurred in someone with at least 1 underlying condition, most commonly obesity (53.9%) and diabetes (53.4%). Resistance to clindamycin increased from 37.0% of isolates in 2011 to 43.2% in 2016 (P = .02). Serotypes Ia, Ib, II, III, and V accounted for 86.4% of isolates in 2016; serotype IV increased from 4.7% in 2008 to 11.3% in 2016 (P < .001 for trend). Conclusions and Relevance: The public health burden of invasive GBS disease among nonpregnant adults is substantial and continues to increase. Chronic diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, may contribute.

Epidemiology of Invasive Early-Onset and Late-Onset Group B Streptococcal Disease in the United States, 2006 to 2015: Multistate Laboratory and Population-Based Surveillance.

Importance: Invasive disease owing to group B Streptococcus (GBS) remains an important cause of illness and death among infants younger than 90 days in the United States, despite declines in early-onset disease (EOD; with onset at 0-6 days of life) that are attributed to intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis (IAP). Maternal vaccines to prevent infant GBS disease are currently under development. Objective: To describe incidence rates, case characteristics, antimicrobial resistance, and serotype distribution of EOD and late-onset disease (LOD; with onset at 7-89 days of life) in the United States from 2006 to 2015 to inform IAP guidelines and vaccine development. Design, Setting, and Participants: This study used active population-based and laboratory-based surveillance for invasive GBS disease conducted through Active Bacterial Core surveillance in selected counties of 10 states across the United States. Residents of Active Bacterial Core surveillance areas who were younger than 90 days and had invasive GBS disease in 2006 to 2015 were included. Data were analyzed from December 2017 to April 2018. Exposures: Group B Streptococcus isolated from a normally sterile site. Main Outcomes and Measures: Early-onset disease and LOD incidence rates and associated GBS serotypes and antimicrobial resistance. Results: The Active Bacterial Core surveillance program identified 1277 cases of EOD and 1387 cases of LOD. From 2006 to 2015, EOD incidence declined significantly from 0.37 to 0.23 per 1000 live births (P < .001), and LOD rates remained stable (mean, 0.31 per 1000 live births). Among the mothers of 1277 infants with EOD, 617 (48.3%) had no indications for IAP and did not receive it, and 278 (21.8%) failed to receive IAP despite having indications. Serotype data were available for 1743 of 1897 patients (91.3%) from 7 sites that collect GBS isolates. Among patients with EOD, serotypes Ia (242 [27.3%]) and III (242 [27.3%]) were most common. Among patients with LOD, serotype III was most common (481 [56.2%]), and this increased from 2006 to 2015 from 0.12 to 0.20 cases per 1000 live births (P < .001). Serotype IV caused 53 cases (6.2%) of EOD and LOD combined. The 6 most common serotypes (Ia, Ib, II, III, IV, and V) caused 881 EOD cases (99.3%) and 853 LOD cases (99.7%). No ß-lactam resistance was identified; 359 isolates (20.8%) tested showed constitutive clindamycin resistance. In 2015, an estimated 840 EOD cases and 1265 LOD cases occurred nationally. Conclusions and Relevance: The rates of LOD among US infants are now higher than EOD rates. Combined with addressing IAP implementation gaps, an effective vaccine covering the most common serotypes might further reduce EOD rates and help prevent LOD, for which there is no current public health intervention.

Short-Term Incidence of Sequelae of HCV Infection Among Medicaid Beneficiaries in Oregon.

OBJECTIVES: Given the known high morbidity and mortality of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in Oregon, we sought to develop a practical method of estimating the severe sequelae of HCV infection among Medicaid beneficiaries in Oregon. METHODS: We assembled a retrospective cohort that identified all Oregon Medicaid beneficiaries with HCV infection enrolled for at least 1 year during 2009-2013. We linked this cohort to 3 data sets to identify HCV-related deaths, cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and first hospitalizations for advanced liver disease (ALD). We calculated incidence density rates and used multivariable Cox regression modeling to calculate adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) to evaluate the association between demographic characteristics (birth year, sex, race, ethnicity) and these 3 outcomes. RESULTS: Of 11 790 Oregon Medicaid beneficiaries with HCV infection, 474 (4.0%) had an HCV-related death, 156 (1.3%) had HCC, and 596 (5.1%) had a first hospitalization for ALD. Adjusted hazard ratios for deaths were 2.2 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.6-2.8) among persons born in 1945 through 1965 (vs persons born after 1965), 2.1 (95% CI, 1.7-2.5) among males (vs females), and 1.9 (95% CI, 1.2-2.9) among Asian/Pacific Islanders and 2.2 (95% CI, 1.5-3.2) among American Indian/Alaska Natives (vs white persons). The same risk groups had significant aHRs for first hospitalizations for ALD. Persons born before 1945 (aHR = 17.0; 95% CI, 5.2-55.8) and in 1945 through 1965 (aHR = 12.8; 95% CI, 4.1-40.3) vs born after 1965, males (aHR = 3.3; 95% CI, 2.3-4.8) vs females, and Asian/Pacific Islanders (aHR = 3.9; 95% CI, 2.3-6.7) vs white persons had higher risks for HCC. CONCLUSIONS: Continued assessments using the methods piloted in this study will allow Oregon to monitor trends in severe sequelae of HCV infection over time.

Assessing the effectiveness of high-dose influenza vaccine in preventing hospitalization among seniors, and observations on the limitations of effectiveness study design.

BACKGROUND: The availability of high-dose (HD) influenza vaccine for seniors should decrease influenza-related hospitalization. Studies to date show a range of mostly moderate increased HD vaccine effectiveness (VE). While a 'healthy vaccinee' phenomenon can inflate VE, for influenza and particularly an HD vaccine targeted at frailer adults, an 'at-risk vaccinee' bias may deflate VE estimates. We assessed senior HD vaccine effectiveness against influenza-related hospitalization by linking immunization registry records to hospitalizations. We also examined whether adding strata typically ignored in case-control matching schemas, such as residence areas, exact age, and provider biases, would increase VE. METHODS: For the 2016-17 influenza season in the Portland metropolitan area, the differential VE for the HD vaccine in preventing PCR-confirmed influenza hospitalization was assessed by a nested series of models across matching strata. For an exact match for high-dose and standard-dose seniors, matching elements included exact age, gender, residence type, race-ethnicity, provider bias, and residence area (zipcode). RESULTS: As a first step, a simple aggregate comparison of influenza-related hospitalization risk showed no added HD effectiveness. For the nested models, adding strata increased VE. In the final model, among 23,712 matched pairs of HD to SD vaccinated seniors, the HD vaccine was 30.7% (95%CI: 8-48%) more effective in preventing influenza-related hospitalization. CONCLUSION: For this study, the high-dose influenza vaccine provided superior protection for seniors against influenza hospitalization. Including matching elements as exact year of age and residence zipcode all added to the calculation of VE. As a warning, non-matched or overly simple matched VE study designs may substantially under-estimate VE.

Impact of pregnancy on observed sex disparities among adults hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed influenza, FluSurv-NET, 2010-2012.

INTRODUCTION: Previous FluSurv-NET studies found that adult females had a higher incidence of influenza-associated hospitalizations than males. To identify groups of women at higher risk than men, we analyzed data from 14 FluSurv-NET sites that conducted population-based surveillance for laboratory-confirmed influenza-associated hospitalizations among residents of 78 US counties. METHODS: We analyzed 6292 laboratory-confirmed, geocodable (96%) adult cases collected by FluSurv-NET during the 2010-12 influenza seasons. We used 2010 US Census and 2008-2012 American Community Survey data to calculate overall age-adjusted and age group-specific female:male incidence rate ratios (IRR) by race/ethnicity and census tract-level poverty. We used national 2010 pregnancy rates to estimate denominators for pregnant women aged 18-49. We calculated male:female IRRs excluding them and IRRs for pregnant:non-pregnant women. RESULTS: Overall, 55% of laboratory-confirmed influenza cases were female. Female:male IRRs were highest for females aged 18-49 of high neighborhood poverty (IRR 1.50, 95% CI 1.30-1.74) and of Hispanic ethnicity (IRR 1.70, 95% CI 1.34-2.17). These differences disappeared after excluding pregnant women. Overall, 26% of 1083 hospitalized females aged 18-49 were pregnant. Pregnant adult females were more likely to have influenza-associated hospitalizations than their non-pregnant counterparts (relative risk [RR] 5.86, 95% CI 5.12-6.71), but vaccination levels were similar (25.5% vs 27.8%). CONCLUSIONS: Overall rates of influenza-associated hospitalization were not significantly different for men and women after excluding pregnant women. Among women aged 18-49, pregnancy increased the risk of influenza-associated hospitalization sixfold but did not increase the likelihood of vaccination. Improving vaccination rates in pregnant women should be an influenza vaccination priority.

Statewide validation of hospital-reported central line-associated bloodstream infections: Oregon, 2009.

BACKGROUND: Mandatory reporting of healthcare-associated infections is common, but underreporting by hospitals limits meaningful interpretation. OBJECTIVE: To validate mandatory intensive care unit (ICU) central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) reporting by Oregon hospitals. DESIGN: Blinded comparison of ICU CLABSI determination by hospitals and health department-based external reviewers with group adjudication. SETTING: Forty-four Oregon hospitals required by state law to report ICU CLABSIs. PARTICIPANTS: Seventy-six patients with ICU CLABSIs and a systematic sample of 741 other patients with ICU-related bacteremia episodes. METHODS: External reviewers examined medical records and determined CLABSI status. All cases with CLABSI determinations discordant from hospital reporting were adjudicated through formal discussion with hospital staff, a process novel to validation of CLABSI reporting. RESULTS: Hospital representatives and external reviewers agreed on CLABSI status in 782 (96%) of 817 bacteremia episodes (k = 0.77 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.70-0.84]). Among the 27 episodes identified as CLABSIs by external reviewers but not reported by hospitals, the final status was CLABSI in 16 (59%). The measured sensitivities of hospital ICU CLABSI reporting were 72% (95% CI, 62%-81%) with adjudicated CLABSI determination as the reference standard and 60% (95% CI, 51%-69%) with external review alone as the reference standard (P = .07). Validation increased the statewide ICU CLABSI rate from 1.21 (95% CI, 0.95-1.51) to 1.54 (95% CI, 1.25-1.88) CLABSIs/1,000 central line-days; ICU CLABSI rates increased by more than 1.00 CLABSI/1,000 central line-days in 6 (14%) hospitals. CONCLUSIONS: Validating hospital CLABSI reporting improves accuracy of hospital-based CLABSI surveillance. Discussing discordant findings improves the quality of validation.

Association between use of statins and mortality among patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed influenza virus infections: a multistate study.

BACKGROUND: Statins may have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects that could reduce the risk of mortality from influenza virus infections. METHODS: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Emerging Infections Program conducts active surveillance for persons hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed influenza in 59 counties in 10 states. We analyzed data for hospitalized adults during the 2007-2008 influenza season to evaluate the association between receiving statins and influenza-related death. RESULTS: We identified 3043 patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed influenza, of whom 1013 (33.3%) received statins and 151 (5.0%) died within 30 days of their influenza test. Patients who received statins were more likely to be older, male, and white; to suffer from cardiovascular, metabolic, renal, and chronic lung disease; and to have been vaccinated against influenza that season. In a multivariable logistic regression model, administration of statins prior to or during hospitalization was associated with a protective odds of death (adjusted odds ratio, 0.59 [95% confidence interval, .38-.92]) when adjusting for age; race; cardiovascular, lung, and renal disease; influenza vaccination; and antiviral administration. CONCLUSIONS: Statin use may be associated with reduced mortality in patients hospitalized with influenza.

Geographic variation in invasive pneumococcal disease following pneumococcal conjugate vaccine introduction in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Rates of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) varied among the United States before pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) introduction. We compared trends in IPD rates among diverse US sites over 10 years since PCV7 introduction. METHODS: Patients with IPD of all ages were identified through active population and laboratory-based surveillance in 8 geographic areas under continuous surveillance during 1998-2009. Isolates were serotyped. IPD incidence rates and percent changes were calculated by site, serotype group, age, and year. RESULTS: Reductions in rates of IPD ranged, by site, from 19 to 29.9 cases per 100,000 population during 1998-1999 to 11.2-18.0 cases per 100,000 population during 2009 (rate reduction, 5.1-15.3 cases per 100,000 population). Reductions in IPD rates among children aged <5 years ranged from 35.7 to 117.2 cases per 100,000 population across the sites. Reductions in rates of IPD due to PCV7 serotypes were seen in all age groups at all sites, ranging from 12 to 21.4 cases per 100,000 population during 1998-1999 to <2 cases per 100,000 population during 2009 (92%-98% reductions). Serotype 19A rates ranged from 0.4 to 1.5 cases per 100,000 population during 1998-1999 to 1.3 to 3.4 cases per 100,000 population during 2009 (rate difference, 0.9-2.8 cases per 100,000 population); modest increases were observed for most age groups across the sites. Rates of IPD due to all other serotypes ranged from 6.3 to 10.3 cases per 100,000 population during 1998-1999 to 8.3-13.6 cases per 100,000 population during 2009 (rate difference, -0.4 to 5.7 cases per 100,000 population). Across the sites, the greatest rate increases were seen in the 50-64 and >65 year age groups. CONCLUSIONS: Reductions in IPD due to vaccine serotypes were consistent across sites. Changes in serotype 19A and all other serotypes were variable. Although relative increases in non-vaccine type serotypes were large in some sites, absolute rate increases were small.

Prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease among HIV-infected adults in the era of childhood pneumococcal immunization.

OBJECTIVE: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and AIDS increase the risk of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). We evaluated IPD among HIV-infected adults over a 10-year period in the US to identify opportunities for prevention of IPD among HIV-infected adults. DESIGN: IPD and HIV surveillance in seven population-based and laboratory-based Active Bacterial Core surveillance areas. METHODS: IPD cases were adults 18-64 years old with pneumococcus isolated from a normally sterile site during 1998-2007. Isolates were serotyped using the Quellung reaction. HIV/AIDS status was determined by medical record review. We calculated incidence of IPD among adults with AIDS using national case-based surveillance data. RESULTS: Of 13 812 IPD cases among 18-64-year-olds, 3236 (23%) occurred among HIV-infected adults (with or without AIDS) and 1313 (10%) occurred among the subset of HIV-infected adults with AIDS. Compared with the period (1998-1999) before childhood 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) introduction in the US, the overall incidence of IPD among adults with AIDS decreased 25% from 399 to 298 cases per 100 000 by 2007 (P = 0.008). In 2006-2007, 8, 39 and 55% of IPD cases among adults with AIDS were caused by serotypes included in the 7-valent PCV, 13-valent PCV and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines, respectively. CONCLUSION: Sustained declines in IPD have occurred among adults with AIDS in the US, but incidence remained high 7 years after PCV7 introduction. More aggressive efforts, including HIV-prevention measures and the use of new PCVs in children and possibly HIV-infected adults, are necessary to further reduce IPD among HIV-infected adults.

Influenza testing and antiviral prescribing practices among emergency department clinicians in 9 states during the 2006 to 2007 influenza season.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Influenza causes significant widespread illness each year. Emergency department (ED) clinicians are often first-line providers to evaluate and make treatment decisions for patients presenting with influenza. We sought to better understand ED clinician testing and treatment practices in the Emerging Infections Program Network, a federal, state, and academic collaboration that conducts active surveillance for influenza-associated hospitalizations. METHODS: During 2007, a survey was administered to ED clinicians who worked in Emerging Infections Program catchment area hospitals' EDs. The survey encompassed the role of the clinician, years since completing clinical training, hospital type, influenza testing practices, and use of antiviral medications during the 2006 to 2007 influenza season. We examined factors associated with influenza testing and antiviral use. RESULTS: A total of 1,055 ED clinicians from 123 hospitals responded to the survey. A majority of respondents (85.3%; n=887) reported they had tested their patients for influenza during the 2006 to 2007 influenza season (Emerging Infections Program site range: 59.3 to 100%; P<.0001). When asked about antiviral medications, 55.7% (n=576) of respondents stated they had prescribed antiviral medications to some of their patients in 2006 to 2007 (Emerging Infections Program site range 32.9% to 80.3%; P<.0001). A positive association between influenza testing and prescribing antiviral medications was observed. Additionally, the type of hospital, location in which an ED clinician worked, and the number of years since medical training were associated with prescribing antiviral influenza medications. CONCLUSION: There is much heterogeneity in clinician-initiated influenza testing and treatment practices. Additional exploration of the role of hospital testing and treatment policies, clinicians' perception of influenza disease, and methods for educating clinicians about new recommendations is needed to better understand ED clinician testing and treatment decisions, especially in an environment of rapidly changing influenza clinical guidelines. Until influenza testing and treatment guidelines are better promulgated, clinicians may continue to test and treat influenza with inconsistency.

Complementary and alternative medicine use in chronic liver disease patients.

GOALS: To examine a wide range of sociodemographic and clinical characteristics as potential predictors of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use among chronic liver disease (CLD) patients, with a focus on CAM therapies with the greatest potential for hepatotoxicity and interactions with conventional treatments. BACKGROUND: There is some evidence that patients with CLD commonly use CAM to address general and CLD-specific health concerns. STUDY: Patients enrolled in a population-based surveillance study of persons newly diagnosed with CLD between 1999 and 2001 were asked about current use of CAM specifically for CLD. Sociodemographic and clinical information was obtained from interviews and medical records. Predictors of CAM use were examined using univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Of the 1040 participants, 284 (27.3%) reported current use of at least 1 of 3 CAM therapies of interest. Vitamins or other dietary supplements were the most commonly used therapy, reported by 188 (18.1%) patients. This was followed by herbal medicine (175 patients, 16.8%) and homeopathy (16 patients, 1.5%). Several characteristics were found to be independent correlates of CAM use: higher education and family income, certain CLD etiologies (alcohol, hepatitis C, hepatitis C and alcohol, and hepatitis B), and prior hospitalization for CLD. CONCLUSIONS: Use of CAM therapies that have the potential to interact with conventional treatments for CLD was quite common among this population-based sample of patients with CLD. There is a need for patient and practitioner education and communication regarding CAM use in the context of CLD.

Evaluation of universal antenatal screening for group B streptococcus.

BACKGROUND: Group B streptococcal disease is one of the most common infections in the first week after birth. In 2002, national guidelines recommended universal late antenatal screening of pregnant women for colonization with group B streptococcus to identify candidates for intrapartum chemoprophylaxis. METHODS: We evaluated the implementation of the guidelines in a multistate, retrospective cohort selected from the Active Bacterial Core surveillance, a 10-state, population-based system that monitors invasive group B streptococcal disease. We abstracted data from the labor and delivery records of a stratified random sample of live births and of all cases in which the newborn had early-onset group B streptococcal disease (i.e., disease in infants <7 days of age) in 2003 and 2004. We compared our results with those from a study with a similar design that evaluated screening practices in 1998 and 1999. RESULTS: We abstracted records of 254 births in which the infant had group B streptococcal disease and 7437 births in which the infant did not. The rate of screening for group B streptococcus before delivery increased from 48.1% in 1998-1999 to 85.0% in 2003-2004; the percentage of infants exposed to intrapartum antibiotics increased from 26.8% to 31.7%. Chemoprophylaxis was administered in 87.0% of the women who were positive for group B streptococcus and who delivered at term, but in only 63.4% of women with unknown colonization status who delivered preterm. The overall incidence of early-onset group B streptococcal disease was 0.32 cases per 1000 live births. Preterm infants had a higher incidence of early-onset group B streptococcal disease than did term infants (0.73 vs. 0.26 cases per 1000 live births); however, 74.4% of the cases of group B streptococcal disease (189 of 254) occurred in term infants. Missed screening among mothers who delivered at term accounted for 34 of the 254 cases of group B streptococcal disease (13.4%). A total of 61.4% of the term infants with group B streptococcal disease were born to women who had tested negative for group B streptococcus before delivery. CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations for universal screening were rapidly adopted. Improved management of preterm deliveries and improved collection, processing, and reporting of culture results may prevent additional cases of early-onset group B streptococcal disease.

Population snapshot of emergent Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 19A in the United States, 2005.

BACKGROUND: Serotype 19A invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) increased annually in the United States after the introduction of the 7-valent conjugate vaccine (PCV7). To understand this increase, we characterized serotype 19A isolates recovered during 2005. METHODS: IPD cases during 1998-2005 were identified through population-based surveillance. We performed susceptibility testing and multilocus sequence typing on 528 (95%) of 554 serotype 19A isolates reported in 2005. RESULTS: The incidence of IPD due to serotype 19A increased from 0.8 to 2.5 cases per 100,000 population between 1998 and 2005 (P < .05), whereas the overall incidence of IPD decreased from 24.4 to 13.8 cases per 100,000 population (P < .05). Simultaneously, the incidence of IPD due to penicillin-resistant 19A isolates increased from 6.7% to 35% (P < .0001). Of 151 penicillin-resistant 19A isolates, 111 (73.5%) belonged to the rapidly emerging clonal complex 320, which is related to multidrug-resistant Taiwan(19F)-14. The remaining penicillin-resistant strains were highly related to other clones of PCV7 serotypes or to isolates within major 19A clonal complex 199 (CC199). In 1999, only CC199 and 3 minor clones were apparent among serotype 19A isolates. During 2005, 11 multiple-isolate clonal sets were detected, including capsular switch variants of a serotype 4 clone. CONCLUSIONS: PCV7 ineffectiveness against serotype 19A, antibiotic resistance, clonal expansion and emergence, and capsular switching have contributed to the genetic diversity of 19A and to its emergence as the predominant invasive pneumococcal serotype in the United States.

Deaths from chronic liver disease and viral hepatitis, Multnomah County, Oregon, 2000.

GOALS: Identify deaths related to chronic liver disease (CLD) in 2000 among Multnomah County, Oregon residents and estimate the proportion of these deaths attributable to hepatitis B or hepatitis C. BACKGROUND: Although CLD is among the most common causes of mortality in the United States, little information is available regarding the proportion of CLD mortality attributable to viral hepatitis. STUDY: We developed a comprehensive list of 117 International Classification of Disease-10 codes potentially related to CLD. We identified deaths among residents of Multnomah County, Oregon whose death certificates included any one of these 117 codes. We verified the history of CLD and viral hepatitis using a combination of hospital charts, medical examiner reports, and a clinical questionnaire mailed to the certifying physician. RESULTS: We verified that 118 patients had died of CLD in Multnomah County, Oregon in 2000; 38 (32%) of the death certificates listed hepatitis B or hepatitis C as the underlying or a contributing cause of death. By medical record review, an additional 16 patients were found to have hepatitis B or hepatitis C not indicated on the death certificate [total 54 (46%) patients with viral hepatitis]. The majority of the 38 patients with viral hepatitis listed on the death certificate had an International Classification of Disease-10 code indicating acute infection with hepatitis B or hepatitis C. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic viral hepatitis is often unreported on death certificates of patients with CLD and, when reported, may be incorrectly coded as acute instead of chronic infection.

Invasive pneumococcal disease among infants before and after introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.

CONTEXT: Streptococcus pneumoniae is a serious infection in young infants. A heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) was licensed in 2000 and recommended for all children aged 2 to 23 months. OBJECTIVE: To determine the rates of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in young infants before and after PCV7 was incorporated into the childhood immunization schedule in June 2000. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A prospective, population-based study of infants aged 0 to 90 days who resided in areas in 8 US states with active laboratory surveillance for invasive S pneumoniae infections from July 1, 1997, to June 30, 2004. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rates of laboratory-confirmed IPD before (July 1, 1997-June 30, 2000) and after (July 1, 2001-June 30, 2004) PCV7 introduction, excluding a transition year (July 1, 2000-June 30, 2001). RESULTS: There were 146 cases of IPD, 89 before and 57 after PCV7 introduction. Isolated bacteremia occurred in 94 cases (64%), pneumonia in 27 (18%), meningitis in 22 (15%), and septic arthritis and/or osteomyelitis in 3 (2%). Mean rates of IPD for infants aged 0 to 90 days decreased 40% from 11.8 (95% confidence interval [CI], 9.6-14.5) to 7.2 (95% CI, 5.6-9.4; P = .004) per 100 000 live births following PCV7 introduction. Among black infants, mean rates of IPD decreased significantly from 17.1 (95% CI, 11.9-24.6) to 5.3 (95% CI, 2.8-10.1; P = .001) per 100,000 live births, with a nonsignificant decrease from 9.6 (95% CI, 7.3-12.7) to 6.8 (95% CI, 4.9-9.4) per 100,000 live births for white infants. Rates of PCV7-serotype isolates decreased significantly from 7.3 (95% CI, 5.3-10.1) to 2.4 (95% CI, 1.6-3.8; P<.001) per 100,000 live births, while rates of non-PCV7 serotypes remained stable (P = .55). CONCLUSIONS: Since PCV7 introduction, rates of IPD in young infants have decreased significantly, providing evidence that vaccinating children aged 2 to 23 months has led to changes in pneumococcal carriage in infants too young to receive PCV7. With a significant decrease in rates of IPD among black infants, the previous racial difference has been eliminated.