[Iodine intake of two-year-olds and adults in Iceland and estimation of the effect of using iodized salt in breads].

INTRODUCTION: Insufficient iodine status was recently identified in pregnant women in Iceland. Iodine fortification of salt is widely used to decrease the risk of iodine deficiency disorders, but the use of iodized salt has not been recommended in Iceland. The aim was to describe iodine intake among Icelandic adults and two-year-olds and estimate the effect of using iodized salt in bread. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Iodine intake was assessed using data from the Icelandic National Dietary Survey 2019-2021 (18-80 years, n=822) and a study of two-year-old children (n=124). Data on bread intake was used to estimate expected iodine intake if iodized salt was used in bread. The results are compared with recommended iodine intake (90 µg/day for two-year-olds and 150 µg/day for adults) and upper intake level (200 µg/day and 600 µg/day, respectively). RESULTS: Average iodine intake was 88 µg/day for children and 134 µg/day for adults. If all types of bread consumed would contain 20 µg of iodine in 100 grams, the average iodine intake would increase to 99 and 153 µg/day, respectively. With higher bread iodine content, >5% of two-year-olds would exceed the upper intake level, while concentration up to 70 µg/100 grams of bread would result in iodine intake below the upper intake level for adults. CONCLUSION: Use of iodized salt in bread corresponding to 20µg of iodine in 100 grams of bread seems safe for young children in Iceland. However, based on the current dietary habits, adding this amount of iodine to bread would not be sufficient to secure optimal intake of iodine in all adults.

[Dietary intake of young Icelanders with psychotic disorders and weight development over an 8-12 months period].

INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of lifestyle related diseases is higher among people with psychotic disorders than the general population. The aim was to assess dietary intake of young people with psychotic disorders for the first time in Iceland. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Subjects were young people (n=48, age 18-30y) with psychotic disorders. Dietary intake was assessed by a 24-hour recall in July-August 2016, and compared with official recommendations and intake of the general public (n=250, age 18-30y). Body weight in the past eight to 12 months, was retrieved from medical records. RESULTS: Consumption of fruits, fish, dairy products, vegetable and fish oil was significantly lower among subjects when compared with the general public, while their soft drink and sweets consumption was higher (p<0.001). Furthermore, the contribution of added sugar was higher (15E% vs. 12E%) and protein intake lower (16E% vs. 18E%). Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin D was lower among subjects than the general public and lower than recommended (0.04±0.3% omega-3 of total energy vs. 1.2±0.6%, p<0.001 and 3.1±4.2 µg vitamin D/day vs. 5.6±6.5 µg/day, p<0.001). Almost 40% of the subjects had gained >5% of their initial body weight in the past 8-2 months. CONCLUSION: Diet of young people with psychotic disorders is not consistent with recommendations and is worse than the diet of their peers in the general population. It is important to find ways to improve the diet and thereby nutrient intake of the group. Key words: psychotic disorders, schizophrenia, recommended dietary allowances, fatty acids, omega-3, vitamin D. Correspondence: Ingibjorg Gunnarsdottir, ingigun@landspitali.is.

[Urban-rural differences in diet, BMI and education of men and women in Iceland]. / Áhrif búsetu og menntunar á mataræði og líkamsthyngdarstuðul kvenna og karla.

INTRODUCTION: Previous Icelandic studies have reported higher prevalence of obesity among women residing outside the capital area but no comparable information is available for men. The aim of this study was to assess diet and body mass index (BMI) of adult men and women residing within and outside the capital area. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Participants were 1312 men and women,18-80 years, from a random sample of the national registry, response rate 68.6%. Diet was assessed during years 2010 to 2011 using repeated 24-hour recall, weight and height self-reported. OR of BMI≥25 kg/m2 was calculated according to residence and education. RESULTS: Women≥46 years within the capital area had lower BMI, or 25.7 kg/m2 vs 28.4 kg/m2 p=0.007, and were less likely to have BMI>25 kg/m2, OR=0.64; CI 0.41-1.0 than those outside the area. No difference was found between the areas among men or younger women. Diets outside the capital had higher percentage of total fat compared than inside the capital. Saturated fatty acid (SFA) were 15.7E% vs 13.9E% for men, p<0.001 and 14.8E% vs 14.0E%, p=0.007 for women and trans fatty acids (TFA) were 0.9E% vs 0.7E% p%lt;0.001 and 0.8E% vs 0.7E% p=0.001 for men and women respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Women's BMI is less associated with residence than in former Icelandic studies. Men's BMI is not associated with residence. Diets within the capital area are closer to recommended intake compared with diets outside the area.

[National nutrition surveys and dietary changes in Iceland. Economic differences in healthy eating]. / Kannanir á mataræði og næringargildi fæðunnar á Íslandi.

INTRODUCTION: Here we compare results on food and nutrient intake from the two most recent Icelandic national nutrition surveys from 2010/11 and 2002 and compare intake of energy giving nutrients from 1990. Finally we assess associations beween a healthy diet and difficulties people have in making ends meet. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Participants were selected by a random sample from the national register. Final sample was 1912 individuals in 2010/11 and 1934 in 2002, response rate 68.6% and 70.6% respectively. Diet was assessed by 24-hour recall. Results from the surveys were calculated using t-test and sssociations between a healthy diet and difficulties making ends meet by linear regression. RESULTS: Consumption of bread, bisquits, cakes and cookies, margarine, highly processed meat products, chips, sugared soft drinks and whole milk was lower in 2010/11 than in 2002 while consumption of whole grain bread, oat meal, fruits, vegetables, meat and cod liver oil was higher. Fish intake was unchanged. Fat intake decreased from 1990 to 2010/11, from 41E% to 35E%, saturated fatty acids from 20.0E% to 14.5E% and trans-fatty acids from 2.0E% to 0.8E%. Most of the changes occurred between 1990 and 2002. People having difficulties making ends meet consumed less fruits, vegetables and whole grain bread but more soft drinks in 2010/11 than those not having difficulties. CONCLUSION: Dietary changes in Iceland from 2002 have mostly been toward recommended intake. Between 1990 and 2002 fat consumption decreased considerably, while less significant changes occurred from 2002 til 2010/11. Economic status is associated with healthy diet in Iceland.

Red blood cell n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in first trimester of pregnancy are inversely associated with placental weight.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate pregnancy outcome in relation to red blood cell (RBC) level of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the first trimester of pregnancy and the influence of lifestyle factors on the RBC level of long-chain n-3 PUFA. DESIGN AND SETTING: Observational study in a community with traditional fish and cod liver oil consumption. POPULATION: Seventy-seven healthy pregnant women. METHODS: The PUFA composition of RBC was measured in the 11th to 15th week of pregnancy. The women answered food frequency and lifestyle questionnaires. Information on pregnancy outcome was collected from birth records. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Placental weight, long-chain n-3 PUFA in diet and RBC, smoking. RESULTS: Of all the pregnancy outcome variables tested, placental weight was the only one associated with long-chain n-3 PUFA in RBC. Inverse association was found between the proportion of long-chain n-3 PUFA in RBC and placental weight, adjusted for birthweight (p=0.035). The proportion of long-chain n-3 PUFA in RBC was positively related to long-chain n-3 PUFA intake (p<0.001) and negatively related to smoking (p=0.011). CONCLUSION: The human fetus relies on maternal supply and placental delivery of long-chain n-3 PUFA for optimal development and function, particularly of the central nervous system. Given the importance of dietary n-3 PUFA during pregnancy, further studies are warranted to investigate the relationship between placental weight, maternal long-chain n-3 PUFA status and smoking.

Docosahexaenoic acid in red blood cells of women of reproductive age is positively associated with oral contraceptive use and physical activity.

Optimal intake of the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and proper balance between intake of n-6 PUFA and n-3 PUFA are important for human health. Considerable evidence exists to show that DHA has a marked benefit during pregnancy. Lifestyle factors can affect the biosynthesis of DHA from dietary precursors, incorporation into membranes and degradation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the PUFA composition of red blood cells (RBCs) from women (n=40) in reproductive age, and how it is affected by diet and other lifestyle factors. Of all the lifestyle factors tested oral contraceptive use and physical activity were the ones correlated with DHA in RBCs, after adjustment for DHA intake. The findings indicate that oral contraceptive use and physical activity have a positive impact on the DHA status, as assessed by RBC level, of women in reproductive age.

Comparison of women's diet assessed by FFQs and 24-hour recalls with and without underreporters: associations with biomarkers.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Women's diet can be especially difficult to assess, as women tend to underreport their intakes more often than men and are more likely to do so if they think they are overweight or obese. The aim was to compare two methods to assess women's diet and how well they associate with biomarkers. The influence and frequency of underreporting was also investigated. METHODS: Diet of 53 women was assessed by two 24-hour recalls and a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Blood was analyzed for retinol, beta-carotene, vitamin C and serum ferritin, and 24-hour urine for nitrogen, potassium and sodium. Underreporting was evaluated with nitrogen excretion vs. intake, and energy intake vs. basal metabolic rate. RESULTS: Energy percent (E%) from macronutrients was similar from FFQ and 24-hour recalls, but total intake was higher from 24-hour recalls (9,516 +/- 2,080 vs. 8,183 +/- 2,893 kJ, p < 0.01). Intakes of vitamin C and potassium from both methods correlated with their respective biomarkers (r = 0.316-0.393). Underreporters had higher body mass index (BMI) than others (27.7 +/- 5.5 vs. 23.8 +/- 3.7 kg/m2, p < 0.05). They reported lower E% total fat (32 +/- 5 vs. 38 +/- 6 E%, p < 0.01) and higher E% carbohydrate (49 +/- 4 vs. 45 +/- 7 E%, p < 0.05). Correlation between intake and biomarkers increased after exclusion of underreporters. CONCLUSION: For women, FFQ and 24-hour recalls give similar E% and most nutrients correlate, but FFQ gives lower intake. Underreporters have higher BMI and diminish the correlation between calculated intake and biomarkers. This has to be considered when intake data are associated with weight management, disease and lifestyle factors.

Relationship between dietary intake of cod liver oil in early pregnancy and birthweight.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the possible association between birth outcome and marine food and cod liver oil intake of healthy women in early (prior to 15 weeks of gestation) pregnancy. DESIGN: An observational study. SETTING: Free-living conditions in a community with traditional fish and cod liver oil consumption. POPULATION: Four hundred and thirty-five healthy pregnant Icelandic women without antenatal and intrapartum complications. METHODS: Dietary intake of the women was estimated with a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) covering food intake together with lifestyle factors for the previous three months. Questionnaires were filled out at between 11 and 15 weeks and between 34 and 37 weeks of gestation. The estimated intake of marine food and cod liver oil was compared with birthweight by linear and logistic regression controlling for potential confounding. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Birthweight, cod liver oil intake, lifestyle factors (alcohol, smoking). RESULTS: Fourteen percent of the study population used liquid cod liver oil in early pregnancy. Regression analysis shows that these women gave birth to heavier babies (P < 0.001), even after adjusting for the length of gestation and other confounding. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal intake of liquid cod liver oil early in pregnancy was associated with a higher birthweight. Higher birthweight has been associated with a lower risk of diseases later in life and maternal cod liver oil intake might be one of the means for achieving higher birthweight.