The effect of growth differentiation factor-5-coated sutures on tendon repair in a rat model.

Tendon ruptures are common injuries that are often treated surgically. Growth Differentiation Factor-5 (GDF-5) has been shown to accelerate tendon healing with varying degrees of success. We used a novel technique to apply recombinant human GDF-5 (rhGDF-5) to suture and hypothesized that controlled, local delivery of rhGDF-5 can be used to enhance tendon repair. Tendons of 92 rats were transected and repaired with sutures. All researchers were blinded to the following treatment groups (24 rats in each group): 0 rhGDF (control), 24 ng/cm rhGDF, 55 ng/cm rhGDF, and 556 ng/cm rhGDF. Rats were euthanized at 3 weeks (n = 48) and at 6 weeks (n = 48). Sutures were coated with rhGDF-5 using a novel dip-coat technique. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay confirmed consistent and reproducible delivery of rhGDF-5. Within each group, 8 were tested biomechanically, and 4 were assessed histologically. Histologic grading at 3 weeks showed improved healing in tendons repaired with coated suture versus controls. By 6 weeks, there were no significant differences. At 3 weeks, minimal isolated cartilage formation was observed; 6-week samples showed more extensive presence, typically surrounding suture fibers. At 3 weeks, tendons repaired with rhGDF-5-coated sutures resulted in significantly higher ultimate tensile load and stiffness compared with control sutures (P < .05) At 6 weeks, there were no significant differences in the mechanical properties of repaired tendons. At 3 weeks, rhGDF-5 induced significant tendon hypertrophy that was more pronounced than at 6 weeks. In addition, tendons repaired with rhGDF-5 showed an increased rate of healing versus control repairs at 3 weeks. This study showed that a novel dip-coating technique can be used to deliver growth factors in varying concentrations to local repair sites to accelerate tendon healing.

In vitro degradation of porous poly(propylene fumarate)/poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic acid) composite scaffolds.

This study investigated the in vitro degradation of porous poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF-based) composites incorporating microparticles of blends of poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) during a 26-week period in pH 7.4 phosphate-buffered saline at 37 degrees C. Using a fractional factorial design, four formulations of composite scaffolds were fabricated with varying PEG content of the microparticles, microparticle mass fraction of the composite material, and initial leachable porogen content of the scaffold formulations. PPF scaffolds without microparticles were fabricated with varying leachable porogen content for use as controls. The effects of including PLGA/PEG microparticles in PPF scaffolds and the influence of alterations in the composite formulation on scaffold mass, geometry, water absorption, mechanical properties and porosity were examined for cylindrical specimens with lengths of 13 mm and diameters of 6.5 mm. The composite scaffold composition affected the extent of loss of polymer mass, scaffold length, and diameter, with the greatest loss of polymer mass equal to 15+/-5% over 26 weeks. No formulation, however, exhibited any variation in compressive modulus or peak compressive strength over time. Additionally, sample porosity, as determined by both mercury porosimetry and micro-computed tomography did not change during the period of this study. These results demonstrate that microparticle carriers can be incorporated into PPF scaffolds for localized delivery of bioactive molecules without altering scaffold mechanical or structural properties up to 26 weeks in vitro.

Nanoreinforcement of poly(propylene fumarate)-based networks with surface modified alumoxane nanoparticles for bone tissue engineering.

A novel composite material has been fabricated for bone tissue engineering scaffolds utilizing the biodegradable polymer poly(propylene fumarate)/poly(propylene fumarate)-diacrylate (PPF/PPF-DA) and surface-modified carboxylate alumoxane nanoparticles. Various surface-modified nanoparticles were added to the polymer including a surfactant alumoxane, an activated alumoxane, a mixed alumoxane containing both activated and surfactant groups, and a hybrid alumoxane containing both groups within the same substituent. These nanocomposites, as well as polymer resin and unmodified boehmite composites, underwent flexural and compressive mechanical testing and were examined using electron microscopy. Hybrid alumoxane nanoparticles dispersed in PPF/PPF-DA exhibited over a 3-fold increase in flexural modulus at 1 wt % loading compared to polymer resin alone. No significant loss of flexural or compressive strength was observed with increased loading of hybrid alumoxane nanoparticles. These dramatic improvements in flexural properties may be attributed to the fine dispersion of nanoparticles into the polymer and increased covalent interaction between polymer chains and surface modifications of nanoparticles.

Photoinitiated cross-linking of the biodegradable polyester poly(propylene fumarate). Part I. Determination of network structure.

In this work, we investigated the mechanism involved in the photoinitiated cross-linking of the polyester poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) using the initiator bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phenylphosphine oxide (BAPO). It was hypothesized that BAPO has the ability to cross-link PPF into solid polymer networks, without the use of a cross-linking monomer, because two pairs of radicals, both involving a fast adding phosphinoyl radical, were formed upon UV irradiation of BAPO. Spectroscopic investigation first confirmed the addition of BAPO derived radicals to the PPF olefin. Investigations of fumarate conversion and bulk network properties were then undertaken, using the BAPO initiator and a monoacylphosphine oxide (MAPO) initiator which contains a single photolabile bond. Results show that a single BAPO phosphinoyl radical was primarily responsible for the formation of a highly cross-linked PPF network and the additional radical pair which may be formed does not dramatically alter fumarate conversion or bulk network properties. From these results, the network structure of BAPO initiated, photo-cross-linked PPF may be deduced. Finally, this study demonstrates a method for inferring cross-linked network structures by contrasting properties of bulk materials formed from similar cross-linking initiators.

Fabrication of poly(propylene fumarate)-based orthopaedic implants by photo-crosslinking through transparent silicone molds.

This work presents a new molding process for photo-crosslinked, degradable polymeric networks of poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and the crosslinking agent poly(propylene fumarate)-diacrylate (PPF-DA). Transparent room temperature vulcanizing silicone molds were fabricated for parts ranging from simple test coupons to orthopaedic implants. The PPF/PPF-DA resin blend was injected into the cavity and photo-crosslinked as light was transmitted through the mold wall. The volumetric shrinkage, mechanical properties, and the effects of gamma sterilization were reported for molded PPF/PPF-DA networks prepared with varying compositions of the two polymer components. The shrinkage decreased while the mechanical properties displayed a general increasing trend when more of the crosslinking agent was incorporated into the network. Gamma irradiation resulted in an improvement of the mechanical properties. In addition, PPF/PPF-DA replicates of a 70:30 poly(L/DL-lactide) biodegradable fixation plate and a bone allograft interbody fusion spacer were produced to evaluate the performance of PPF/PPF-DA as an orthopaedic implant and allow for a comparison to be made with materials that have been established for clinical use.

Evaluation of thermal- and photo-crosslinked biodegradable poly(propylene fumarate)-based networks.

Biodegradable networks of poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and the crosslinking reagent poly(propylene fumarate)-diacrylate (PPF-DA) were prepared with thermal- and photo-initiator systems. Thermal-crosslinking was performed with benzoyl peroxide (BP), which is accelerated by N,N-dimethyl-p-toluidine (DMT) and enables injection and in situ polymerization. Photo-crosslinking was accomplished with bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phenylphosphine oxide (BAPO), which is activated by long-wavelength UV light and facilitates material processing with rapid manufacturing techniques, such as stereolithography. Networks were evaluated to assess the effects of the initiators and the PPF/PPF-DA double bond ratio on the mechanical properties. Regardless of the initiator system, the compressive properties of the PPF/PPF-DA networks increased as the double bond ratio decreased from 2 to 0.5. BAPO/UV-initiated networks were significantly stronger than those formed with BP/DMT. The compressive modulus of the photo- and thermal-crosslinked PPF/PPF-DA networks ranged from 310 +/- 25 to 1270 +/- 286 MPa and 75 +/- 8 to 332 +/- 89 MPa, respectively. The corresponding fracture strengths varied from 58 +/- 7 to 129 +/- 17 MPa and 31 +/- 13 to 105 +/- 12 MPa. The mechanical properties were not affected by the initiator concentration. Characterization of the network structures indicated that BAPO was a more efficient initiator for the crosslinking of PPF/PPF-DA, achieving a higher double bond conversion and crosslinking density than its BP counterpart. Estimated average molecular weights between crosslinks (Mc) confirmed the effects of the initiators and PPF/PPF-DA double bond ratio on the mechanical properties. This work demonstrates the capability to control the properties of PPF/PPF-DA networks as well as their versatility to be used as an injectable material or a prefabricated implant.

In vitro cytotoxicity of injectable and biodegradable poly(propylene fumarate)-based networks: unreacted macromers, cross-linked networks, and degradation products.

This study evaluates the in vitro biocompatibility of an injectable and biodegradable polymeric network based on poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and the cross-linking agent PPF-diacrylate (PPF-DA). Using a methyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay, the effect of the concentrations of PPF and PPF-DA on the cytotoxicity of its unreacted macromers, cross-linked networks, and degradation products was examined. The influence of network structure properties on cell viability and attachment to the cross-linked material was also investigated. The unreacted macromers exhibited a time- and dose-dependent cytotoxic response that increased with more PPF-DA in the mixture. Conversely, the cross-linked networks formed with more PPF-DA did not demonstrate an adverse response because increases in conversion and cross-linking density prevented the extraction of toxic products. Fibroblast attachment was observed on the PPF/PPF-DA networks with the highest double bond conversions. The degradation products, obtained from the complete breakdown of the networks in basic conditions, displayed a dose-dependent cytotoxic response. These results show that there are concerns regarding the biocompatibility of injectable, biodegradable PPF/PPF-DA networks but also sheds light onto potential mechanisms to reduce the cytotoxic effects.

Effect of physiological temperature on the mechanical properties and network structure of biodegradable poly(propylene fumarate)-based networks.

Poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF)-based networks have exhibited increases in mechanical properties during their initial stages of degradation. This study was designed to investigate whether physiological temperatures are the source of this reinforcing behavior by influencing the formation of additional crosslinks within the network. Utilizing a model PPF network formed with the crosslinking agent poly(propylene fumarate)-diacrylate (PPF-DA), cylindrical specimens were stored in an inert environment and conditioned at -20 and 37 degrees C while their mechanical properties and network structure were monitored over a six week period. The PPF/PPF-DA specimens exposed to physiological temperatures showed an increase in compressive modulus from 1674 +/- 88 to 2059 +/- 75 MPa. The double bond conversion improved as well, from 64 +/- 1 to 70 +/- 1%, indicating that crosslinks were being formed in the network. The additional reactivity occurred exclusively with unreacted fumarate bonds. PPF/PPF-DA networks stored at -20 degrees C showed no changes in mechanical properties; however, they increased when subsequently conditioned at 37 degrees C. The results were used to explain that PPF-based networks undergo a biphasic degradation behavior due to the competing hydrolytic degradation and thermal induced crosslinking. In addition, heat treating the networks at higher temperatures can be utilized as a means to further reinforce PPF-based materials.

In vitro degradation of polymeric networks of poly(propylene fumarate) and the crosslinking macromer poly(propylene fumarate)-diacrylate.

Polymeric networks of poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) crosslinked with poly(propylene fumarate)-diacrylate (PPF-DA) are currently being investigated as an injectable, biodegradable bone cement. This study examined the effect of crosslinking density, medium pH, and the incorporation of a beta-tricalcium phosphate (beta-TCP) filler on the in vitro degradation of PPF/PPF-DA. Cylindrical specimens were submerged in buffered saline at 37 degrees C and the change in weight, geometry, and compressive mechanical properties were monitored over a 52-week period. All formulations showed an initial increase in modulus and yield strength over the first 12 weeks, achieving maxima of 1307+/-101 and 51+/-3MPa, respectively, for the beta-TCP composite. PPF/PPF-DA networks with the lower crosslinking density demonstrated the greatest degradation with a 17% mass loss. Samples in the lower buffer pH 5.0 compared to physiological pH 7.4 did not show any differences in mass loss, but exhibited a faster decrease in the compressive strength over time. The beta-TCP composites maintained their mechanical properties at the level following their initial increase. These results show that the degradation of PPF/PPF-DA networks can be controlled by the crosslinking density, accelerated at a lower pH, and prolonged with the incorporation of the beta-TCP filler.

Evaluation of the in vitro degradation of macroporous hydrogels using gravimetry, confined compression testing, and microcomputed tomography.

This study investigated the in vitro degradation characteristics of macroporous hydrogels based on poly(propylene fumarate-co-ethylene glycol) (P(PF-co-EG)). Four formulations were fabricated to test the effect of porosity and cross-linking density on the degradation of the resulting macroporous hydrogels. Macroporosity was introduced by the addition of sodium bicarbonate and ascorbic acid, the precursors of the carbon dioxide porogen, in the initiation system for the hydrogel cross-linking. Macroporous hydrogels with porosities of 0.80 +/- 0.03 and 0.89 +/- 0.03 were synthesized by the addition of sodium bicarbonate of concentrations 40 and 80 mg/mL and ascorbic acid of concentrations 0.05 and 0.1 mol/L, respectively. Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA) was utilized as a cross-linker. The molecular weight between cross-links had a significant effect on weight loss after 12 weeks, where samples with M(C) of 1,880 +/- 320 synthesized with a P(PF-co-EG):PEG-DA ratio of 3:1 had a significantly greater mass loss due to degradation than those with M(C) of 1,000 +/- 100 synthesized with a P(PF-co-EG):PEG-DA ratio of 1:1. In contrast, porosity played a minimal role in determining the weight loss. Mechanical testing of the hydrogels under confined compression showed a decrease in compressive modulus over the degradation time for all formulations. In addition, an increase in hydrogel equilibrium water content and pore wall thickness was observed with degradation time, whereas the hydrogel porosity and surface area density remained invariant. The results from microcomputed tomography corroborated with the rest of the measurements and indicated a bulk degradation mechanism of the macroporous hydrogels.

Kinetics of poly(propylene fumarate) synthesis by step polymerization of diethyl fumarate and propylene glycol using zinc chloride as a catalyst.

Diethyl fumarate and propylene glycol were reacted in the presence of a zinc chloride catalyst to synthesize poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) over a period of 12 hours. The kinetics of the transesterification polymerization at 130 degrees C, 150 degrees C, and 200 degrees C were determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis. The initial rate of polymerization at each temperature was quantified by calculating the rate of change of the number average molecular weight (Mn). At 200 degrees C, gelation of the PPF occurred after 4 h. GPC analysis of the reaction showed that PPF synthesized at 150 degrees C had a higher final Mn of 4600 (+/- 190) and a higher weight average molecular weight of 10500 (+/- 760) than at 130 degrees C (n = 3). The chemical structure of the PPF was verified by NMR and FT-IR analysis. This study demonstrated that the maximum Mn of PPF by a transesterification reaction is limited due to gelation of PPF at high temperature.