Influence of environmental factors on the occurrence of gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary nematodes in the red fox in the semi-arid Mediterranean areas of the Iberian Peninsula.

Human-induced ecosystem fragmentation is one of the drivers causing wildlife migration from their natural habitats to urban areas, among other reasons. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most abundant wild canid in the semi-arid Mediterranean areas of the Iberian Peninsula. Water scarcity may result in areas shared by synanthropic fox populations and domestic animals becoming hotspots for parasite transmission. This study describes the gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary nematode species affecting fox populations in these semi-arid areas and the influence of environmental variables on parasite abundance. A total of 167 foxes collected from 2015 to 2021 in the Region of Murcia (SE Spain) were analysed. Parasite abundance and spatial distribution were evaluated using environmental variables and host characteristics with a Generalised Linear Model and the Moran index. Eleven species (seven from the gastrointestinal tract and four from the cardiopulmonary tract) were described. The influence of biotic and abiotic variables was studied for Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, Uncinaria stenocephala, Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina. Temperature, humidity and areas of forest or agricultural land influenced the abundance of these parasites, providing optimal conditions for free-living stages of the direct life cycle nematodes and intermediate hosts. Absolute abundance distribution maps showed defined locations for C. vulpis, T. canis and T. leonina. The results for U. stenocephala, T. canis and T. leonina were particularly important as their higher abundance levels were found close to anthropized areas, which need to be carefully evaluated to prevent transmission of these nematodes between domestic and wild canids and human health.

The World Animal Health Information System as a tool to support decision-making and research in animal health.

The World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS) collects and publishes a wealth of information gathered by individual countries' Veterinary Services, including detailed country-specific information on outbreaks of diseases listed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE), including emerging diseases, in domestic animals and wildlife, and non-listed diseases in wildlife. The data set is one of the most comprehensive in the world, with 182 Members obliged to report this information to WOAH in a timely manner. As such, the data provide invaluable input for Veterinary Services, animal health researchers and stakeholders to gain insight into risk from infectious diseases, for example through the development of predictive models and risk assessments to address the risk from trade of animal products, globalisation, or movement of wildlife or vectors across country borders. This paper reviews previous analyses that have been conducted using WAHIS data and outlines ways in which these data can be used for preparedness and risk assessment.

Le Système mondial d'information zoosanitaire (WAHIS) collecte et publie une grande quantité d'informations recueillies auprès des Services vétérinaires nationaux, parmi lesquelles des données détaillées spécifiques aux pays sur les foyers de maladies listées par l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OMSA, fondée en tant qu'OIE), dont les maladies émergentes, chez les animaux domestiques et dans la faune sauvage, ainsi que de maladies non listées affectant la faune sauvage. Cet ensemble de données est l'un des plus exhaustifs du monde puisque les 182 Membres de l'OMSA ont l'obligation de lui faire remonter ces informations dans WAHIS dans des délais spécifiés. Ces données sont précieuses pour les Services vétérinaires, les chercheurs travaillant dans le domaine de la santé animale et les parties prenantes car elles permettent de mieux comprendre les risques relatifs aux maladies infectieuses, notamment grâce aux modèles prédictifs et aux évaluations de risques pour traiter le risque lié au commerce de produits d'origine animale, à la mondialisation, aux mouvements de la faune sauvage ou aux vecteurs entre les pays. Les auteurs font le point sur des analyses antérieures qui ont été menées en utilisant les données de WAHIS et soulignent comment ces données peuvent être utilisées dans le cadre d'un travail de préparation et d'évaluation des risques.

El Sistema Mundial de Información Zoosanitaria (WAHIS) colecta y publica una gran cantidad de datos recogidos por los Servicios Veterinarios de cada país, en particular detallada información sobre brotes de enfermedades listadas por la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OMSA, fundada como OIE), incluidas las enfermedades emergentes, que hayan afectado a los animales domésticos o la fauna silvestre, así como enfermedades no listadas que afectan a la fauna silvestre. Se trata de uno de los conjuntos de datos más completos del mundo, ya que los 182 Miembros tienen la obligación de comunicar esta información a la OMSA dentro de plazos determinados. Estos datos son una fuente de información de gran utilidad para los Servicios Veterinarios, los investigadores que trabajan en sanidad animal y demás partes interesadas porque permiten mejorar la comprensión de los riesgos derivados de las enfermedades infecciosas, por ejemplo elaborando modelos predictivos y evaluaciones de riesgo que ayuden a manejar los riesgos ligados al comercio de productos de origen animal, la globalización o al movimiento transfronterizo de animales salvajes o vectores de enfermedad. Los autores repasan una serie de análisis previamente realizados con datos de WAHIS y explican en síntesis cómo pueden utilizarse estos datos con fines de preparación y evaluación de riesgos.

Wildlife health surveillance: gaps, needs and opportunities.

Disease emergence represents a global threat to public health, economy and biological conservation. Most emerging zoonotic diseases have an animal origin, most commonly from wildlife. To prevent their spread and to support the implementation of control measures, disease surveillance and reporting systems are needed, and due to globalisation, these activities should be carried out at the global level. To define the main gaps affecting the performance of wildlife health surveillance and reporting systems globally, the authors analysed data from a questionnaire sent to National Focal Points of the World Organisation for Animal Health that inquired on structure and limits of wildlife surveillance and reporting systems in their territories. Responses from 103 Members, covering all areas of the globe, revealed that 54.4% have a wildlife disease surveillance programme and 66% have implemented a strategy to manage disease spread. The lack of dedicated budget affected the possibility of outbreak investigations, sample collection and diagnostic testing. Although most Members maintain records relating to wildlife mortality or morbidity events in centralised databases, data analysis and disease risk assessment are reported as priority needs. The authors' evaluation of surveillance capacity found an overall low level, with marked variability among Members that was not restricted to a specific geographical area. Increased wildlife disease surveillance globally would help in understanding and managing risks to animal and public health. Moreover, consideration of the influence of socio-economic, cultural and biodiversity aspects could improve disease surveillance under a One Health approach.

L'émergence de maladies représente une menace pour la santé publique, l'économie et la conservation de la biodiversité au niveau mondial. La plupart des maladies émergentes sont d'origine animale et proviennent de la faune sauvage. Afin de prévenir leur propagation et de soutenir la mise en oeuvre de mesures de contrôle, une surveillance des maladies et des systèmes de notification sont nécessaires - et ce à l'échelle internationale, en raison de la mondialisation. En vue de définir les lacunes principales affectant les performances de la surveillance et de la notification sanitaire relative à la faune sauvage au niveau mondial, les auteurs ont analysé les données d'un questionnaire envoyé aux Points focaux nationaux de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale et traitant de la structure et des limites des systèmes de surveillance et de notification applicables à la faune sauvage sur leur territoire. Selon les réponses des 103 Membres, qui représentaient toutes les régions du monde, 54,4 % disposent d'un programme de surveillance et 66 % ont mis en oeuvre une stratégie visant à gérer la propagation de maladies. L'absence de budgets dédiés affecte la possibilité d'enquêter sur l'apparition d'épidémies, de prélever des échantillons et d'effectuer des tests diagnostiques. Bien que la majorité des Membres consignent dans des bases de données centralisées les événements de mortalité et de morbidité affectant la faune sauvage, l'analyse des données et l'évaluation des risques sanitaires ont été mentionnées comme étant des besoins prioritaires. Les auteurs ont évalué les capacités de surveillance qui se situent, selon eux, à un niveau faible et se caractérisent par une grande variabilité entre les Membres, indépendamment des zones géographiques dont il s'agit. Une meilleure surveillance sanitaire de la faune sauvage au niveau mondial permettrait d'améliorer la compréhension et la gestion des risques pour la santé animale et publique. Par ailleurs, une réflexion sur l'influence des aspects socio-économiques, culturels et liés à la biodiversité améliorerait la surveillance sanitaire mise en place dans le cadre de l'approche Une seule santé.

La aparición de enfermedades representa una amenaza de dimensión mundial para la salud pública, la economía y la conservación de los recursos biológicos. La mayor parte de las enfermedades zoonóticas tienen un origen animal, por lo general localizado en la fauna silvestre. Para evitar que estas enfermedades se propaguen y apoyar la aplicación de medidas de lucha hacen falta sistemas de vigilancia y notificación de enfermedades, sistemas que, teniendo en cuenta las dinámicas de la mundialización, deben declinarse a escala planetaria. Con objeto de determinar las principales carencias que lastran el buen funcionamiento de los sistemas de vigilancia y notificación de enfermedades de la fauna silvestre a escala mundial, los autores analizaron datos extraídos de un cuestionario distribuido entre los puntos focales nacionales de la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal, en el cual se les preguntaba por la estructura y los límites que presentaban en su territorio dichos sistemas. Las respuestas recibidas de 103 Miembros de todas las zonas del globo pusieron de relieve que un 54,4% de ellos cuenta con un programa de vigilancia sanitaria de la fauna silvestre y que un 66% tiene implantada una estrategia para contener la propagación de enfermedades. La falta de un presupuesto asignado específicamente a estas tareas limita la posibilidad de investigar eventuales brotes, obtener muestras y practicar pruebas de diagnóstico. Aunque la mayoría de los Miembros lleva un registro de los episodios de mortalidad y morbilidad de animales salvajes en bases de datos centralizadas, el análisis de datos y la determinación del riesgo de enfermedad son dos de los aspectos mencionados como necesidad prioritaria. La evaluación de la capacidad de vigilancia realizada por los autores puso de manifiesto un nivel en general bajo, con una marcada heterogeneidad entre los Miembros que no se circunscribía a una zona geográfica en particular. Una mayor vigilancia de las enfermedades de la fauna silvestre a escala mundial ayudaría a aprehender y manejar mejor los riesgos que estas presentan para la sanidad animal y la salud pública. Además, el hecho de tener en cuenta la influencia de factores socioeconómicos, culturales y ligados a la diversidad biológica podría traducirse en una más eficaz vigilancia sanitaria en clave de Una sola salud.

Pearsonema plica in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from semi-arid areas of the Iberian Peninsula.

The nematode Pearsonema plica is a parasite infecting the urinary bladder of carnivores, with a described prevalence ranging from 1 to 90%. This parasite needs earthworms as intermediate host to complete its life cycle, being the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) a definitive host. The objective of this study was to analyse the prevalence and intensity of P. plica in the red fox population from the Region of Murcia (SE Spain), an area with semi-arid Mediterranean climate. The urinary bladder, kidneys and ureters of 167 red foxes were collected at necropsy, opened and observed to detect adult parasites. The influence of host variables (sex, age and body condition using Kidney Fat Index) and environmental variables (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Normalized Difference Moisture Index, Bare Soil Index, temperature, radiation, evapotranspiration, precipitation, Corine Land Cover categories and distance to urban areas) were evaluated using a Generalised Linear Model. Moran index was used to evaluate the parasite spatial aggregation. The prevalence found was very low (2.4%; median abundance 0 nematodes per fox; median intensity 7.5 nematodes per parasitized fox), which contrast with those described in other red fox populations in Europe. Environmental variables had a significant influence on the occurrence of P. plica, being NDMI, mean summer precipitation, percentage of forest and agricultural areas positively associated with P. plica abundance. The south-eastern Iberian Peninsula has a semi-arid climate that hinders the development of the life cycle of this nematode, which justifies its occurrence in specific areas where there are the suitable environmental conditions for the presence of earthworms. However, although semi-arid Mediterranean areas do not seem to be favourable carnivores to be parasitized by P. plica, we cannot underestimate the risk that exists in those areas where, either naturally or by human activity, there are environmental factors that favor the presence of this nematode.

Global formal live poultry and hatching egg trade network (2004-2016): description and association with poultry disease reporting and presence.

As international trade constitutes one of the main spread pathways of diseases, a better understanding of the trade behaviors of countries will help identify strengths and areas for improvement in the approach of national authorities to controlling poultry diseases globally. Using data reported to the United Nations Comtrade and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) between 2004 and 2016 by 193 countries, we used a network analysis on trade data of poultry hatching eggs, live poultry of less than 185 g and live poultry of 185 g or more to determine that: 1) quantities traded between countries are substantial, and tend to increase (average increase of 800,000 poultry heads and 21,000 tons of hatching eggs each year equivalent to an increase by 2-fold in 17 yr); 2) the stability of the networks was low (a quarter to half of trade relationships maintained between 2 consecutive years) and the subnetworks favorable to the spread of diseases were in general consistent with regional clustering, trade exchanges being equally at intracontinental and intercontinental levels; 3) countries with highest number of partners were located in the same world regions for the 3 poultry networks - Americas and Europe for export (up to 107 partners) and Africa, Asia and Europe for import (up to 36 partners); 4) for live poultry, biggest exporting countries shared more poultry disease surveillance data, and reported more disease presence than others, which did not stop them from trading. Biggest importers reported less poultry disease surveillance data and reported more disease presence than others; and 5) the main structural and trend characteristics of the international trade networks were in general similar for the 3 networks. The information derived from this work underlines the importance of applying the preventive measures advocated by the OIE and will support countries to reduce the risk of introduction of pathogens causing poultry diseases.

Evaluation of the Baermann-Wetzel method for detecting lungworm larvae in wild ruminants from faecal samples.

Lungworms can exert a negative impact on wild ruminant fitness; for this reason, the diagnosis of the associated diseases is an important prevention measure. The Baerman-Wetzel technique is the most usual method for the diagnosis of bronchopulmonary nematodes and is based on the active migration and movement of their first-stage larvae. Pulmonary tissue samples are frequently used for the post-mortem diagnosis of these parasites, but this kind of sample is not always available and easy to obtain. Faecal samples represent a more accessible choice for parasite monitoring. This work aimed to evaluate the agreement between the results obtained by the Baermann-Wetzel technique when samples of lung parenchyma or faeces from wild ruminants are used. A good level of agreement as well as a similar sensitivity between the two types of sample were observed, validating the use of faecal samples as a less invasive and cost-effective alternative for the monitoring of lungworm in wild ruminant populations.

The World Organisation for Animal Health: notification of animal diseases.

In a globalised world, accurate, complete and timely notification of the presence of animal diseases plays a crucial role in international trade. It allows countries at risk to take appropriate action to prevent the spread of transboundary diseases or minimise their impact, and thus mitigate the associated risks to animal and public health. In this context, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is responsible for rapidly and transparently sharing accurate and complete information on the global animal health situation. To do so, it collects, verifies, validates and disseminates the animal health information provided by its Members. Information on animal diseases, including zoonoses, is notified to the OIE in compliance with legally binding instruments between the OIE and its Members. Since the creation of the OIE in 1924, the type of animal disease information to be notified and the communication channels for its subsequent distribution to Members have been standardised and improved over time, taking advantage of the available tools and methods of mass dissemination of information. The continuous improvement of the OIE disease notification process has had positive effects, both in terms of animal disease prevention, control and eradication at a global level, and by facilitating the international trade of animals, their products and by-products.

Dans un contexte de mondialisation, la notification exacte, complète et rapide de la présence des maladies animales joue un rôle crucial dans les échanges internationaux. Elle permet aux pays vulnérables de prendre les mesures appropriées pour empêcher la propagation des maladies transfrontalières ou pour en minimiser l'impact et atténuer ainsi les risques qu'elles représentent pour la santé animale et la santé publique. Dans ce contexte, l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) est responsable d'assurer un partage rapide et transparent d'informations exactes et complètes sur la situation de la santé animale dans le monde. L'OIE s'acquitte de cette tâche à travers la collecte, la vérification, la validation et la diffusion des informations fournies par les Membres sur leur situation zoosanitaire. L'information sur les maladies animales, zoonoses incluses, est notifiée à l'OIE conformément aux instruments juridiquement contraignants mis en place entre l'OIE et ses Membres. Depuis la création de l'OIE en 1924, tant le type d'informations sanitaires à notifier que les canaux utilisés pour diffuser ces informations aux Membres ont peu à peu fait l'objet d'une normalisation et ont été perfectionnés à la faveur de l'évolution des outils et des méthodes de dissémination de masse de l'information. L'amélioration continue des procédures de notification des maladies à l'OIE a eu des effets positifs tant sur la prévention, le contrôle et l'éradication des maladies animales à l'échelle mondiale que sur la facilitation des échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits et sousproduits d'origine animale.

En un planeta mundializado, la notificación exacta, completa y puntual de la presencia de enfermedades animales cumple una función básica en el comercio internacional, pues permite a los países expuestos a riesgo adoptar medidas apropiadas para prevenir la propagación de enfermedades transfronterizas o reducir al mínimo sus consecuencias, y con ello mitigar los consiguientes riesgos zoosanitarios y de salud pública. En este ámbito, la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) tiene la responsabilidad de compartir de forma rápida y transparente información exacta y completa sobre la situación zoosanitaria mundial. Para hacerlo reúne, verifica, valida y difunde la información sobre enfermedades animales, incluidas las zoonosis, que le hacen llegar sus Miembros en cumplimiento de los acuerdos jurídicamente vinculantes que la OIE tiene suscritos con ellos. Desde 1924, año de creación de la OIE, se ha ido estandarizando y definiendo cada vez con más precisión el tipo de datos zoosanitarios que se deben notificar y se han ido mejorando los canales de comunicación por los que luego se distribuye esta información a los Miembros, aprovechando los instrumentos y métodos existentes de difusión masiva de información. El perfeccionamiento continuo del proceso de notificación de enfermedades de la OIE ha tenido efectos positivos, por lo que respecta a la vez a prevenir, controlar y erradicar enfermedades animales en el mundo y a facilitar el comercio internacional de animales, productos de origen animal y productos derivados de ellos.

Gastroenteric parasite of wild Galliformes in the Italian Alps: implication for conservation management.

This study provides insights about the diversity, prevalence and distribution of alpine wild galliformes gastrointestinal parasite community, trying to fill a gap in the scientific information currently available in scientific literature. The analysis included three host species: 77 rock partridge (Alectoris graeca saxatilis), 83 black grouse (Tetrao tetrix tetrix) and 26 rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helveticus) shot during the hunting seasons 2008-2015. Parasites isolated were Ascaridia compar, Capillaria caudinflata and cestodes. The rock ptarmigan was free from gastrointestinal parasites, whereas the most prevalent helminth (37%) was A. compar in both black grouse and rock partridge. C. caudinflata occurrence was significantly higher in black grouse (prevalence = 10%, mean abundance = 0.6 parasites/sampled animal) than in rock partridge (prevalence = 1.20%, mean abundance = 0.01 parasites/sampled animal). Significant differences were detected among hunting districts. A. compar was found with a significant higher degree of infestation in the hunting districts in the northern part of the study area whereas cestodes abundance was higher in Lanzo Valley. Quantitative analysis of risk factors was carried out using a generalized linear model (GLM) only on the most common parasite (A. compar). Latitude was the only factors associated with infestation risk (OR = 52.4). This study provides information on the composition and variability of the parasite community in the alpine Galliformes species.

Spatio-temporal patterns of sarcoptic mange in red deer and Iberian ibex in a multi-host natural park.

The reliance on multiple hosts to survive is what makes the management and control of multi-host infectious agents challenging. Sarcoptes scabiei causes sarcoptic mange in a wide range of mammal species with ungulates being an important host. Little is known about the role different ungulates play in sustaining endemic transmission of the disease and no study has yet to describe the long-term multi-host sarcoptic infestation dynamics in free-ranging wildlife. Here, we explore 24 years of sarcoptic mange infestation data for two Mediterranean ungulate species, red deer and Iberian ibex, living in the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park of southern Spain. The temporal analysis showed a clear seasonal pattern of infestation in both ungulates with a peak in early spring and a decline throughout the summer. The spatial analysis, however, showed that caprinae rather than cervidae is the most competent host for sarcoptic mange spreading and persistence. Considering that few studies have described the spatio-temporal pattern of mange outbreaks for long periods of time, the information reported in this work aims to improve our understanding of sarcoptic mange epizootic in wild ruminant populations.

Multiridge Method for Studying Ground-Deformation Sources: Application to Volcanic Environments.

Volcanic phenomena are currently monitored by the detection of physical and chemical observations. Generally, the ground deformation field is the most relevant shallow expression of the geometric and physical parameters variations in the magmatic reservoir. In this study, we propose a novel method for the direct estimation of the geometric parameters of sources responsible for volcanic ground deformation detected via the DInSAR technique. Starting with the biharmonic properties of the deformation field, we define an approach based on the Multiridge and ScalFun methods to achieve relevant information about both the positions and shapes of active sources, such as the Mogi source. Our methodology is definitely different from the methods currently used for modeling ground-deformation sources, mainly based on forward or inverse techniques. In fact, (i) it does not require any assumptions about the source type, and (ii) it is not influenced by the distribution of medium elastic parameters or (iii) the presence of high-frequency noise in the dataset. For synthetic cases, we accurately estimate the depth to the source within a 3% error. Finally, we study the real case of the Okmok volcano ground-deformation field and achieve results compatible with those in previous works.

Rabies as a threat to wildlife.

The impact of infectious disease may become progressively more harmful to a species' survival as a wild population approaches an 'extinction vortex'. This risk is especially relevant for pathogens that spread rapidly and result in high mortality rates. Rabies, a virus that infects many mammalian species, can be efficiently transmitted through infected saliva, and is fatal without prior vaccination or rapid post-exposure prophylaxis (in humans). The authors conducted an extensive literature review to identify all wild mammal species reported to have been infected with rabies virus. They found reports of infection in 190 mammalian species, including 16 with elevated risk of extinction and two for which rabies is a direct conservation threat: the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). This paper discusses selected examples in which rabies has contributed to the population decline of a species of conservation concern. In addition, the authors note the importance of the transmission of rabies virus (RABV) from domestic dogs to wildlife, and the many challenges associated with the vaccination of wild animals. With this in mind, they present potential solutions to reduce the burden of rabies on wildlife. Once stable control of RABV is achieved in domestic dogs, remaining rabies threats to wildlife conservation can be addressed more effectively.

L'impact des maladies infectieuses peut constituer une menace croissante pour la survie d'espèces animales sauvages dès lors que leurs populations sont entraînées dans la « spirale de l'extinction ¼. Ce risque se pose plus particulièrement lorsqu'il s'agit d'agents pathogènes qui se propagent rapidement et induisent un taux de mortalité élevé. Le virus de la rage affecte un grand nombre d'espèces de mammifères et se transmet facilement par contact avec de la salive infectée ; l'infection virale entraîne la mort en l'absence d'une vaccination préalable ou, chez l'être humain, d'une prophylaxie post-exposition administrée rapidement. Les auteurs ont procédé à un examen exhaustif de la littérature afin d'inventorier les espèces de mammifères sauvages chez qui l'infection rabique a été rapportée. Des cas ont été notifiés chez 190 espèces de mammifères, dont 16 présentant un risque élevé d'extinction et deux directement menacées d'extinction en raison de la rage : le loup d'Abyssinie (Canis simensis) et le lycaon (Lycaon pictus). Les auteurs apportent des précisions sur un nombre choisi d'espèces vulnérables ou en danger dont le déclin des populations est en partie imputé à la rage. En outre, ils soulignent l'importance de la transmission du virus de la rage des chiens domestiques aux animaux sauvages et décrivent les nombreuses difficultés liées à la vaccination de la faune sauvage. Ces éléments établis, ils présentent quelques solutions envisageables pour réduire le fardeau de la rage dans la faune sauvage. Une fois le virus de la rage contrôlé de manière pérenne chez le chien domestique il sera possible de lutter plus efficacement contre les autres menaces que la rage fait peser sur la conservation de la faune.

Una enfermedad infecciosa puede tener efectos cada vez más dañinos en la supervivencia de una especie a medida que una población silvestre se va aproximando a un «vórtice de extinción¼. Este riesgo tiene especial importancia en el caso de patógenos que se propagan con rapidez y causan elevadas tasas de mortalidad. La rabia, enfermedad provocada por un virus que infecta a muchas especies de mamíferos y puede transmitirse eficazmente a través de saliva infectada, resulta letal en ausencia de vacunación previa o de rápidas medidas de profilaxis tras la exposición (en el ser humano). Los autores realizaron un amplio estudio bibliográfico para determinar todas aquellas especies de mamíferos silvestres en que se hubiera descrito una infección por el virus de la rabia. Encontraron infecciones descritas en 190 especies de mamíferos, de las que 16 presentan un elevado riesgo de extinción y dos cuya conservación se ve directamente amenazada por la rabia: el lobo etíope (Canis simensis) y el licaón, o perro salvaje africano (Lycaon pictus). Los autores exponen una serie de ejemplos en los que la rabia ha contribuido al declive demográfico de una especie cuya pervivencia está en mayor o menor peligro. Los autores señalan además la importancia que reviste la transmisión del virus de la rabia de los perros domésticos a la fauna silvestre y los numerosos problemas que presenta la vacunación de los animales silvestres. Teniendo presente esta dificultad, exponen posibles soluciones para reducir la carga de rabia en la fauna silvestre. Una vez se logre estabilizar el control del virus rábico en el perro doméstico, será posible combatir más eficazmente la amenaza que representa para la conservación de las especies silvestres.

Factors influencing the success of aerial rabies vaccination of foxes.

Sylvatic rabies has been eradicated from most of Central Europe, but cases still occur in the Balkans. Oral rabies vaccination of foxes is an effective method for controlling the disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the success of aerial vaccination campaigns conducted in Montenegro by identifying ecological, environmental and climatic factors that influenced the prevalence of antibodies to the rabies vaccine. To monitor the bait uptake and the serological responses to vaccination, foxes were shot by hunters. Of 175 shot foxes, 142 foxes (81.1%) had consumed baits. Of these only a total of 81 (57.0%) tested positive for rabies vaccine antibodies, possibly, due to the delayed uptake of bait in which the rabies vaccine was already inactivated. We found that low vaccination responses were associated with high fox density and bait delivery in open areas. In high fox density habitat, bait uptake might be delayed as other food and prey options for foxes are abundant. Similarly, delayed bait uptake probably occurred in open areas as such areas are less frequently used by foxes. The findings of this study suggest that efficacy of oral rabies vaccination by aerial delivery is associated with landscape features.

Longer aftershocks duration in extensional tectonic settings.

Aftershocks number decay through time, depending on several parameters peculiar to each seismogenic regions, including mainshock magnitude, crustal rheology, and stress changes along the fault. However, the exact role of these parameters in controlling the duration of the aftershock sequence is still unknown. Here, using two methodologies, we show that the tectonic setting primarily controls the duration of aftershocks. On average and for a given mainshock magnitude (1) aftershock sequences are longer and (2) the number of earthquakes is greater in extensional tectonic settings than in contractional ones. We interpret this difference as related to the different type of energy dissipated during earthquakes. In detail, (1) a joint effect of gravitational forces and pure elastic stress release governs extensional earthquakes, whereas (2) pure elastic stress release controls contractional earthquakes. Accordingly, normal faults operate in favour of gravity, preserving inertia for a longer period and seismicity lasts until gravitational equilibrium is reached. Vice versa, thrusts act against gravity, exhaust their inertia faster and the elastic energy dissipation is buffered by the gravitational force. Hence, for seismic sequences of comparable magnitude and rheological parameters, aftershocks last longer in extensional settings because gravity favours the collapse of the hangingwall volumes.

The American mink (Neovison vison) is a competent host for native European parasites.

The American mink (Neovison vison) is a mustelid native to North America that was introduced in Europe and the former USSR for fur farming. Throughout the last century, accidental or deliberate escapes of mink from farms caused the establishment of stable feral populations. In fact, the American mink is considered an invasive alien species in 28 European countries. The present study evaluates the gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary helminth fauna of the American mink in Galicia (NW Spain) to understand its role as a potential reservoir for parasites affecting other autochthonous mustelids. In the period 2008-2014, fifty American mink (35 males and 15 females) of different ages (22 immature and 28 adults) from the provinces of Lugo, Ourense and Pontevedra were captured and sacrificed. Eight parasite species were found (6 nematodes and 2 trematodes) with the following prevalences: Molineus patens (68%), Aonchotheca putorii (54%), Crenosoma melesi (10%), Aonchotheca annulosa (8%), Angiostrongylus daskalovi (6%), Aelurostrongylus spp. (2%), Troglotrema acutum (2%) and an unidentified trematode (2%). Eighty-two per cent of the mink harboured helminths, including 15 animals (30%) infected by only one parasite species, 19 (38%) by two species, 5 (10%) by three species and 2 mink (4%) by four species. All helminth species identified are native to European mustelids. Statistical models were used to evaluate if animal characteristics (age, sex and weight), date and capture area influenced the prevalence, intensity or parasite richness. Statistical differences were detected only in models for intensity of M. patens, A. putorii and C. melesi. This is the first report of Angiostrongylus daskalovi, a cardiopulmonary nematode, and A. annulosa, a gastrointestinal nematode specific of rodents, in American mink. Moreover, although the fluke T. acutum has already been cited in American mink, to our knowledge, the present study represents the first report of this trematode in the lung.

Endemic caseous lymphadenitis in a wild Caprinae population.

Between 2010 and 2013, an outbreak of caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) occurred in a captive stock of Iberian ibexes (Capra pyrenaica, Schinz 1838) maintained for conservation purposes in the National Game Reserve 'Ports de Tortosa i Beseit' (PTB), northeastern Spain. The aim of this study was to assess the CLA status in the free-ranging donor population of ibexes. An ELISA test to detect antibodies to CLA was performed in 360 hunter-harvested ibexes between 2007 and 2013. A spatial analysis and recursive partitioning approaches with regression tree models were used to explore CLA-associated risk factors. Nineteen per cent of ibexes had antibodies to CLA. Significant differences in seroprevalence were observed among game management areas but no clear trends of CLA occurrence were observed over the study period. Ibexes from areas of higher population density and living close to aggregation points displayed a higher probability of testing positive to CLA. These results suggest that CLA is endemic in the Iberian ibex population inhabiting PTB and density-dependent risk factors. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first record of CLA maintenance in a free-ranging wild Caprinae population.

The World Organisation for Animal Health and the World Health Organization: intergovernmental disease information and reporting systems and their role in early warning.

Only two international organisations have a global legal framework that allows them to request, collect, and release global animal or human health information: the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), which is responsible for transparently assessing the global animal health situation, and the World Health Organization (WHO), which is responsible for transparently assessing the global human health situation. Legal instruments bind OIE Member Countries and WHO States Parties (OIE's Standards and WHO's International Health Regulations [IHR]) to report certain disease outbreaks and public health events to their respective organisations. OIE Member Countries must report exceptional epidemiological events involving any OIE-listed diseases, including zoonoses. Moreover, they must notify the OIE of any emerging animal diseases. The IHR require WHO Member States to provide notification of events that may constitute a public health emergency of international concern. These include, but are not restricted to, outbreaks of communicable diseases of international concern. In both organisations, in addition to reporting outbreaks and exceptional events, Members also monitor diseases on an ongoing basis and provide regular reports. To complement these passive surveillance mechanisms, the OIE, WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations track signals from informal sources of outbreaks of animal and zoonotic infectious diseases, thereby increasing the sensitivity of worldwide disease reporting. The formal information collected is disseminated to Members and the general public through various communication channels, so that countries can apply science-based measures to prevent further disease spread. Both the OIE and WHO reporting systems are supported by a range of coordinating activities to ensure the proper flow of information between national and international levels.

Deux organisations internationales seulement disposent d'un cadre juridique mondial permettant de demander, collecter et diffuser des informations sur la santé animale ou humaine dans le monde : il s'agit de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE), qui est chargée d'évaluer de manière transparente la situation zoosanitaire mondiale, et de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS), qui est chargée d'évaluer de manière transparente la situation de la santé humaine dans le monde. Ces deux organisations ont mis en place des instruments juridiques (les normes sanitaires de l'OIE et le Règlement sanitaire international [RSI] de l'OMS) qui imposent aux Pays membres de l'OIE et aux États parties au RSI de notifier tout événement sanitaire important à leurs organisations respectives. Les Pays Membres de l'OIE doivent notifier tout événement épidémiologique exceptionnel concernant les maladies de la liste de l'OIE, y compris les zoonoses. En outre, ils doivent notifier à l'OIE toute maladie animale émergente. Le RSI impose aux États membres de l'OMS de notifier tout événement pouvant constituer une urgence de santé publique de portée internationale. Cela couvre notamment les foyers de maladies transmissibles importantes au plan international. Outre le signalement des foyers et des événements exceptionnels, les Membres des deux organisations exercent également une surveillance de routine des maladies et communiquent des rapports réguliers. En complément de ces mécanismes de surveillance passive, l'OIE, l'OMS et l'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO) assurent le suivi de tout signalement provenant de sources non officielles concernant d'éventuels foyers de maladies animales infectieuses et zoonotiques, ce qui accroît la sensibilité du système de notification des maladies à l'échelle mondiale. Les informations recueillies par la voie officielle sont diffusées aux Pays membres et au grand public par divers canaux de communication afin que les pays puissent appliquer des mesures fondées sur la science et empêcher ainsi toute nouvelle propagation. Les systèmes de notification de l'OIE et de l'OMS s'appuient tous deux sur une série d'activités de coordination afin d'assurer la bonne circulation de l'information entre les niveaux national et international.

Solo dos organizaciones internacionales disponen de un mecanismo jurídico de alcance planetario que les permita solicitar, reunir y hacer pública información sanitaria o zoosanitaria de dimensión mundial: la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE), responsable de evaluar con transparencia la situación zoosanitaria del mundo; y la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS), que se encarga de evaluar con transparencia la situación mundial en materia de salud humana. Hay instrumentos jurídicos que obligan a los Países Miembros de la OIE y los Estados Miembros de la OMS a notificar a la organización correspondiente todo caso importante de enfermedad (las normas de la OIE, por un lado, y el Reglamento Sanitario Internacional de la OMS [RSI]), por el otro). Los Países Miembros de la OIE deben comunicar episodios epidemiológicos excepcionales en los que intervenga cualquiera de las enfermedades que figuran en la lista de la OIE, zoonosis inclusive. Además, deben notificar a la OIE la aparición de toda enfermedad animal emergente. El RSI obliga a los Estados Miembros de la OMS a notificar todo episodio que pueda constituir una emergencia de salud pública de importancia internacional, como pueden ser, por ejemplo, los brotes de enfermedades transmisibles de importancia internacional. Los Miembros de ambas organizaciones, además de comunicar brotes y episodios excepcionales, deben vigilar continuamente la presencia de enfermedades y presentar informes periódicos. Para complementar estos mecanismos de vigilancia pasiva, la OIE, la OMS y la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) siguen de cerca las señales procedentes de fuentes oficiosas que puedan indicar la presencia de brotes infecciosos de enfermedades animales o zoonóticas, con lo que acrecientan la sensibilidad del dispositivo mundial de notificación. La información oficial así obtenida transita por diversos canales de comunicación para llegar a los Países Miembros y el gran público, de forma que los países puedan adoptar medidas científicamente fundamentadas para evitar la ulterior propagación de los brotes. Los sistemas de notificación de la OIE y la OMS están respaldados por una serie de actividades de coordinación que aseguran la adecuada circulación de información entre los niveles nacional e internacional.

Agar Diffusion Procedures for Susceptibility Testing of Malassezia pachydermatis: Evaluation of Mueller-Hinton Agar Plus 2 % Glucose and 0.5 µg/ml Methylene Blue as the Test Medium.

Aim of this study was to verify whether Mueller-Hinton agar supplemented with 2 % glucose and methylene blue (MH-GM), which is used for disk diffusion susceptibility testing of Candida species by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, is suitable for testing Malassezia pachydermatis. A variant of the disk diffusion procedure utilizing a 9-mm tablet was used to test 31 isolates against clotrimazole and miconazole using MH-GM as test medium. The MH-GM agar optimally supported the growth of all M. pachydermatis isolates, provided that the yeast inoculum was prepared with a lipid source (Tween 40 and 80). Zone edges were frequently definite and clear, facilitating the measurement of zone size and minimizing subjectivity. The inhibition zones correlated with MIC values obtained in a broth dilution assay. The agar diffusion method with MH-GM as the test medium appears as a suitable procedure for testing the susceptibility of M. pachydermatis to CTZ and MCZ in clinical laboratories. This test format may allow processing a large number of isolates in epidemiological studies. This may in turn facilitate clarifying to what extent the problem "drug resistance" accounts for cases of treatment failure in dogs with Malassezia otitis and dermatitis.

In vitro antifungal susceptibility of Malassezia pachydermatis strains isolated from dogs with chronic and acute otitis externa.

Malassezia pachydermatis is a yeast that is frequently involved as a secondary/perpetuating factor in canine otitis externa. Topical therapies with different antifungal agents, mainly azole compounds, are generally successful in controlling the yeast overgrowth, but treatment failure and rapid recurrences are common. This study compared the in vitro antifungal susceptibility of M. pachydermatis isolates obtained from chronic and acute cases of otitis externa. The aim was to assess the possible onset of resistance mechanisms in isolates involved in long-lasting episodes with poor response to treatment. We evaluated the in vitro susceptibility to miconazole (MCZ) and clotrimazole (CTZ) of 42 isolates of M. pachydermatis obtained from dogs with chronic (group A, n = 25) and acute otitis (group B, n = 17), using a modified CLSI M27-A3 microdilution method. All isolates were inhibited by the antifungal agents employed, but Malassezia isolates from group A were significantly associated with higher minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for both agents (Median MIC values: MCZ group A 2 µg/ml, group B 1 µg/ml; CTZ group A 8 µg/ml, group B 4 µg/ml). These findings prove that these isolates had a reduced in vitro susceptibility to the antifungal agents tested. However, it is unlikely that this could have any influence on the outcome of a topical treatment. Indeed, marketed products include concentrations of the tested agents that largely exceed even the highest MICs found in this study (in most cases at least 1,000 × the MIC, or greater). In conclusion, this study suggests that isolates of M. pachydermatis involved in chronic cases of canine external otitis and exposed to repeated antifungal treatments are unlikely to develop mechanisms of resistance of clinical relevance.

Assessment of the gastrointestinal helminth fauna of mountain hares (Lepus timidus varronis) from the northwestern Italian Alps, with new records of parasite occurrence.

We describe the gastrointestinal parasite community of Lepus timidus varronis, a subspecies of the mountain hare (L. timidus) living in the Alps. Two nematode species are reported for the first time in L. timidus.

Invasive species and their parasites: eastern cottontail rabbit Sylvilagus floridanus and Trichostrongylus affinis (Graybill, 1924) from Northwestern Italy.

The eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus is a native American lagomorph. Within the genus Sylvilagus, the eastern cottontail is the species with the widest distribution. From 1950s, the species was introduced to several European countries. A rapid territorial expansion of the introduced eastern cottontails has been observed in many areas of Italy. The eastern cottontail has been demonstrated to play a main role as carrier of exotic parasites. To date, three nematode species, exotic in Italian ecosystems, have been reported from introduced S. floridanus. However, its parasite fauna biodiversity is richer in native populations of the American continent. The aim of this work was to further investigate the gastrointestinal parasites of S. floridanus, to evaluate the potential presence of other exotic species. During 2010, 101 hosts were examined, and three nematodes were collected from their digestive tract. Two parasite species (Obeliscoides cuniculi, Trichostrongylus calcaratus) were already reported in Italy; the isolation of Trichostrongylus affinis is instead the first report of this nematode in Italy and in Europe as a whole. This study wants to highlight the great risks related to the introduction of allochthonous species. The impact of the invasion by alien animal species may be particularly severe for public and animal health, due to the potential introduction of new pathogens. The good number of exotic parasites found in introduced eastern cottontails, together with the few sanitary surveys carried out, suggests that an epidemiological survey, with specimens from multiple localities on a wider geographic range, could lead to interesting findings on parasites of native and alien lagomorphs in Europe.