Compassionate Release: A Call to Social Workers.

An increase in the number of older people incarcerated in prisons has given rise to increased costs of correctional health care. Despite the many benefits of compassionate release, it is rarely used. Citing barriers at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels, we contend that social workers are uniquely suited to increase the number of people released through this mechanism owing to a unique knowledge and skill set. We offer eight specific strategies for how social workers can increase the use of compassionate release by working with individuals, conducting and disseminating research, and engaging in advocacy as shaped by core professional principles and values and related curricula.

Childhood Bullying Victimization, Substance Use and Criminal Activity among Adolescents: A Multilevel Growth Model Study.

BACKGROUND: This study aims to examine the effects of childhood bullying victimization (CBV) on substance use and criminal activity among adolescents over time. In addition, it identifies the moderating effects of gender and race/ethnicity on the associations of CBV with substance abuse and criminal activity in adolescence and young adulthood. METHODS: This study included 8984 adolescents aged 12 to 18 years (Mage = 14.22 years) assessed biennially at four time points utilizing the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997. The two-level hierarchical linear modeling was employed to test the effects of CBV on substance use and criminal activity. RESULTS: The incidence of substance use increased over time throughout adolescence to young adulthood, while that of criminal activity decreased. CBV increased the risks of cigarette use, marijuana use, and criminal activity. Gender and race/ethnicity significantly moderated the effect of CBV on alcohol use and alcohol binges. The effect of CBV on alcohol use was stronger among females than males. Among Hispanic adolescents, CBV was more strongly related to alcohol use and binges compared to non-Hispanic White. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest the need for early intervention for children at high risk of being bullied to reduce later substance abuse and involvement in criminal activities. Considering the moderating effects of gender and ethnicity on the associations, target-specified intervention and prevention programs are also required. Further studies focusing on the lifelong effects of CBV beyond adolescence are recommended.

The Relationship Between Severe Mental Disorders and Recidivism in a Sample of Women Released from Prison.

Women are one of the fastest growing sectors of the prison population, and have different pathways into prison and differing needs during the reentry process when compared to men (Cloyes et al. J Forensic Nurs; 6:3-14, 2010b; Herrschaft et al. J Offender Rehabil; 48:463-482, 2009). Women report higher levels of mental health problems overall, and report more severe symptomatology (Cloyes et al. J Forensic Nurs; 6:3-14, 2010a; Hyde 2012; Lynch et al. 2014). The current study focuses on the role of severe mental disorders for women released from prison. Data collected from the North Carolina Division of Adult Correction and Juvenile Justice were used to analyze the specific role of severe mental disorders in women's recidivism at eight years post-release (n = 2311). Approximately 20% of women in this sample met the criteria for diagnosis with a severe mental disorder (SMD). Logistic regression analysis indicated that there was an association between SMDs and recidivism for this sample only (p = .11). Cox regression analyses indicated that women diagnosed with SMDs were 16% more likely to have recidivated at eight years post-release compared with women who were not diagnosed with an SMD (p < .05). Implications for the recognition, role, and treatment of SMDs during reentry are discussed.

The interaction of serious mental disorder and race on time to reincarceration.

Individuals with a serious mental disorder (SMD) are disproportionately incarcerated in state prisons, and research has shown that individuals with SMD are more likely to recidivate upon release. Persons of color are also disproportionately incarcerated and at risk for repeat incarcerations. However, minimal research has yet to examine whether the relationship between SMD and recidivism is conditioned on race. This study used proportional hazards Cox regression modeling to investigate the effect of SMD on criminal recidivism over an 8-year period among 22,376 former prisoners in North Carolina. The interaction between race and SMD is explored to test for cross-racial variation in time-to-reincarceration. A significant interaction effect of non-Black minority by SMD was found. Non-Black minority former prisoners with SMD returned to prison significantly quicker than non-Black minorities without SMD. No interaction effect was found for either Black or White former prisoners. Hazard to return to prison was also significantly increased for former prisoners that were younger in age, male, Black, not employed at arrest, and indicated for substance abuse. Those factors contributing to the effect of SMD on criminal recidivism within non-Black minority former prisoners is unclear. Additional research is needed on the interactive effects of racial group and SMD on postprison experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record

Incarcerated Women's Experiences and Perceptions of Participating in Research.

The research process within prisons has largely considered researchers' perspectives. Only one known study explicitly examined incarcerated persons' perceptions and no known studies have explored incarcerated persons' experiences with research on sensitive topics. This study examines incarcerated women's experiences with participating in research on victimization. A thematic analysis was conducted on responses to open-ended questions about participating in a research study from 227 women in two prisons who participated in a study about victimization. Women prisoners were overwhelmingly positive about participating in the research study with the vast majority willing to participate in a future study. Participants believed participating in the study provided opportunities for them to share their story, heal, reflect, grow, and help others. Some women mentioned that discussing certain topics created uncomfortable emotions and memories. Participants perceived benefits of participating in research. Implications for research in prisons are presented.

Nonfatal suicidal behavior among women prisoners: the predictive roles of childhood victimization, childhood neglect, and childhood positive support.

Women entering prison report high rates of childhood victimization. Women in prison also report higher rates of nonfatal suicidal behavior (self-reported suicide attempts) than women in the general population and similar rates to their male counterparts despite having significantly lower suicide rates than males in the general population. Yet, there is a dearth of research that addresses the relationship between childhood victimization and suicidality for women prisoners in the United States. The purpose of this study is (a) to assess the relationship between childhood victimization and nonfatal suicidal behavior for a random sample of women prisoners; (b) to investigate predictive differences between childhood physical victimization, childhood sexual victimization, childhood neglect, and childhood support; and (c) to determine whether women prisoners with higher frequencies of childhood victimization and neglect are more likely to have attempted suicide than women prisoners with lower frequencies. Results indicate that childhood victimization, neglect, and lack of support are all significantly associated with nonfatal suicidal behavior among women prisoners. Frequency of childhood neglect had a larger effect size than frequency of childhood physical victimization, childhood sexual victimization, and lack of support. The results of this study add to the growing body of literature on childhood victimization and suicidality in general, and nonfatal suicidal behavior for prisoner populations in particular. The article ends with a discussion on clinical implications; particularly the finding that frequency of childhood victimization, childhood neglect, and lack of childhood support matters when determining the risk of suicidality.

The relationship between childhood abuse and psychosis for women prisoners: assessing the importance of frequency and type of victimization.

This study examines the relationship between childhood victimization and self-reported current symptoms of psychosis in an incarcerated female population in the United States. Participants are 159 randomly selected women incarcerated in two North Carolina state prisons. Participants completed a battery of self-report measures to assess childhood victimization and current and lifetime experience of audio/visual hallucinations and delusions. In accordance with the dose-response model, we hypothesized a predictive relationship between severity, frequency, and type of victimization and psychosis for this sample of women prisoners. Results indicate that women who experienced multi-victimization were 2.4 times more likely to report current symptoms of psychosis than other women prisoners who experienced only physical or sexual victimization in childhood. Likewise, a one-unit increase in frequency of childhood victimization was associated with a 3.2% increased likelihood of having reported symptoms of current psychosis. These results provide support for the dose-response model hypothesis that multi-victimization is an important predictor of psychosis for the women prisoner population. Results indicate that adjusting prison-based mental health services to address the relationship of childhood victimization and symptoms of psychosis may be a key factor in improving outcomes among this population.

Histories of childhood victimization and subsequent mental health problems, substance use, and sexual victimization for a sample of incarcerated women in the US.

Women are entering US prisons at nearly double the rate of men and are the fastest growing prison population. Current extant literature focuses on the prevalence of the incarceration of women, but few studies exist that emphasize the different trajectories to prison. For example, women prisoners have greater experiences of prior victimization, more reports of mental illness, and higher rates of illicit substance use. The purpose of this study was to understand the prevalence of childhood victimization and its association with adult mental health problems, substance abuse disorders, and further sexual victimization. The research team interviewed a random sample of 125 women prisoners soon to be released from prison to gather information on their childhood physical and sexual victimization, mental health and substance abuse problems as an adult, and sexual victimization in the year preceding incarceration. Results indicate that women prisoners in this sample, who were both physically and sexually victimized as children, were more likely to be hospitalized as an adult for a psychological or emotional problem. Women who were sexually victimized or both physically and sexually victimized were more likely to attempt suicide. Women who experienced physical victimization as children and women who were both physically and sexually victimized were more likely to have a substance use disorder and women who were sexually abused as children or both physically and sexually victimized were more likely to be sexually abused in the year preceding prison. This article ends with a discussion about prisons' role in providing treatment for women prisoners and basing this treatment on women's trajectories to prison, which disproportionately include childhood victimization and subsequent mental health and substance use problems.

Effects of personality disorder and impulsivity on emotional adaptations in prison among women offenders.

The present study sought to better understand the influence of personality disorders and impulsivity on women's ability to adapt to incarceration. We analyzed the influence of personality disorders as screened with the structured clinical interview for personality disorders, and impulsivity as assessed with the Barratt impulsivity scale on depression and anxiety, sleeping problems, and feeling afraid of being attacked in prison among a large sample of women incarcerated in a Virginia prison. Results from regression models indicated that schizotypal, borderline, avoidant and dependent personality disorders and cognitive impulsivity were significant predictors of symptoms of anxiety and depression net of demographic covariates. Women possessing a diagnosis of paranoid personality disorder were at increased odds of having difficulty sleeping in prison and borderline, dependent, and paranoid personality disorder were at increased odds of experiencing fear in prison. Women who had been in prison before were significantly less likely to experience these problems. Implications of study findings for policies and practices involving women offenders are discussed.

Interventions for reducing adolescent alcohol abuse: a meta-analytic review.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of substance abuse interventions for their ability to reduce adolescent alcohol use. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE; PsycINFO; ERIC; Wilson Social Science Abstracts; Criminal Justice Abstracts; Social Work Abstracts; Social Science Citation Index; Dissertations Abstracts International; National Criminal Justice Research Service; Social, Psychological, Criminological, Educational Trials Register; and the PsiTri databases from 1960 through 2008. STUDY SELECTION: Of 64 titles and abstracts identified, 16 studies and 26 outcomes constituted the sample. The researchers calculated Hedges g effect sizes and used a random-effects model to calculate adjusted pooled effect sizes. Heterogeneity was explored using stratified analyses. Main Exposure Completion of a substance abuse intervention that aimed to reduce or eliminate alcohol consumption. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Abstinence, frequency of alcohol use, and quantity of alcohol use measured between 1 month and 1 year upon completion of treatment. RESULTS: Pooled effects of standardized mean differences indicate that interventions significantly reduce adolescent alcohol use (Hedges g = -0.61; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.83 to -0.40). Stratified analyses revealed larger effects for individual treatment (Hedges g = -0.75; 95% CI, -1.05 to -0.40) compared with family-based treatments (Hedges g = -0.46; 95% CI, -0.66 to -0.26). CONCLUSIONS: Treatments for adolescent substance abuse appear to be effective in reducing alcohol use. Individual-only interventions had larger effect sizes than family-based interventions and effect sizes decreased as length of follow-up increased. Furthermore, behavior-oriented treatments demonstrated promise in attaining long-term effects.

Is employment associated with reduced recidivism?: the complex relationship between employment and crime.

This article explores the association between employment and recidivism for parolees released from Texas prisons. Along with determining whether obtaining employment on release from prison is associated with decreased odds of reincarceration, this article analyzes whether obtaining employment is associated with increased time to reincarceration. Proportional hazard models were used to examine the effect of employment on reincarceration over time. This analysis allowed a unique view of desistance from crime as a process of behavioral change with multiple stages. Results generally support this perspective, finding that although obtaining employment is not associated with a significant decrease in likelihood of reincarceration, it is associated with significantly greater time to reincarceration. Thus, among parolees who are reincarcerated, those who obtain employment spend more time crime-free in the community before returning to prison. This article argues that increased time crime-free is an indicator of positive behavior change that should be supplemented with clinical interventions to help formerly incarcerated persons maintain the initial motivation associated with employment.

A comprehensive review: methodological rigor of studies on residential treatment centers for substance-abusing adolescents.

This article examines the quality of research regarding the effectiveness of residential treatment centers for substance-abusing adolescents and begins to examine if methodological rigor is associated with substance abuse outcomes. A systematic review of each study is conducted using criteria based on a methodological analysis by Miller & Wilbourne (2002) and methodological issues specified by Chambless and Hollon (1998). Of eight studies reviewed, only three used a strong quasi-experimental design. Out of the four most rigorous studies reviewed, two found significant differences in substance use reduction between the treatment and comparison groups. Of the remaining studies, despite having strong selectivity bias, only one found significant differences between treatment and comparison groups, and it was for females only at the one-year follow-up. Social work researchers should conduct more rigorous studies to assess the effectiveness of residential treatment with substance-abusing adolescents, which would enable social workers, advocating for their clients to receive treatment, to understand the effectiveness of residential substance abuse treatment.