Reprint of: Implementation and perception of outpatient pharmacists prescribing hormonal contraceptives in North Carolina.

BACKGROUND: North Carolina (NC) House Bill 96, effective February 2022, enabled trained immunizing pharmacists across the state to prescribe hormonal contraceptives (HCs). However, the extent and barriers to deployment are unknown. The purpose of this study was to describe the uptake and challenges from outpatient pharmacists who trained to provide HCs in an outpatient practice to assist others in the implementation of this service. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective was to estimate the proportion of trained NC pharmacists who provided HCs in an outpatient setting. The secondary objective was to identify barriers during the implementation of this service. METHODS: This cross-sectional, anonymous, web-based survey was emailed on December 13, 2022, to NC-licensed pharmacists enrolled in the required training. A reminder email was sent on January 10, 2023, with all responses considered up to January 31, 2023. Pharmacists licensed in NC who performed at least 50% of their clinical practice in an outpatient setting were included. The primary endpoint was having prescribed HC (Y/N). All endpoints were analyzed using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Of 1633 pharmacists eligible, 96 completed responses were included in the analysis (5.9%). Training was incomplete in 11 of 96 (11.5%), and 66 of 96 (68.8%) completed the training without implementing the service. Of the remaining 19 of 96 (19.8%) that developed a HC service, 15 of 96 (15.6%) had prescribed HCs. Among the 15 prescribing pharmacists, all reported positive patient feedback, while 7 reported improved job satisfaction. Among all 96 respondents, barriers reported included time constraints (49%) and a lack of appropriate reimbursement (43.8%). CONCLUSION: Few HC-trained NC outpatient pharmacists are prescribing HCs. Addressing prescribing barriers would potentially expand the scope of this service and further innovate the outpatient pharmacy setting.

Comparison of peer, self, and faculty objective structured clinical examination evaluations in a PharmD nonprescription therapeutics course.

PURPOSE: Objective structured clinical examinations (OSCE) are a valuable assessment within healthcare education, as they provide the opportunity for students to demonstrate clinical competency, but can be resource intensive to provide faculty graders. The purpose of this study was to determine how overall OSCE scores compared between faculty, peer, and self-evaluations within a Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) curriculum. METHODS: This study was conducted during the required nonprescription therapeutics course. Seventy-seven first-year PharmD students were included in the study, with 6 faculty members grading 10-15 students each. Students were evaluated by 3 graders: self, peer, and faculty. All evaluators utilized the same rubric. The primary endpoint of the study was to compare the overall scores between groups. Secondary endpoints included interrater reliability and quantification of feedback type based on the evaluator group. RESULTS: The maximum possible score for the OSCE was 50 points; the mean scores for self, peer, and faculty evaluations were 43.3, 43.5, and 41.7 points, respectively. No statistically significant difference was found between the self and peer raters. However, statistical significance was found in the comparison of self versus faculty (p = 0.005) and in peer versus faculty (p < 0.001). When these scores were correlated to a letter grade (A, B, C or less), higher grades had greater similarity among raters compared to lower scores. Despite differences in scoring, the interrater reliability, or W score, on overall letter grade was 0.79, which is considered strong agreement. CONCLUSIONS: This study successfully demonstrated how peer and self-evaluation of an OSCE provides a comparable alternative to traditional faculty grading, especially in higher performing students. However, due to differences in overall grades, this strategy should be reserved for low-stakes assessments and basic skill evaluations.

Implementation and perception of outpatient pharmacists prescribing hormonal contraceptives in North Carolina.

BACKGROUND: North Carolina (NC) House Bill 96, effective February 2022, enabled trained immunizing pharmacists across the state to prescribe hormonal contraceptives (HCs). However, the extent and barriers to deployment are unknown. The purpose of this study was to describe the uptake and challenges from outpatient pharmacists who trained to provide HCs in an outpatient practice to assist others in the implementation of this service. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective was to estimate the proportion of trained NC pharmacists who provided HCs in an outpatient setting. The secondary objective was to identify barriers during the implementation of this service. METHODS: This cross-sectional, anonymous, web-based survey was emailed on December 13, 2022, to NC-licensed pharmacists enrolled in the required training. A reminder email was sent on January 10, 2023, with all responses considered up to January 31, 2023. Pharmacists licensed in NC who performed at least 50% of their clinical practice in an outpatient setting were included. The primary endpoint was having prescribed HC (Y/N). All endpoints were analyzed using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Of 1633 pharmacists eligible, 96 completed responses were included in the analysis (5.9%). Training was incomplete in 11 of 96 (11.5%), and 66 of 96 (68.8%) completed the training without implementing the service. Of the remaining 19 of 96 (19.8%) that developed a HC service, 15 of 96 (15.6%) had prescribed HCs. Among the 15 prescribing pharmacists, all reported positive patient feedback, while 7 reported improved job satisfaction. Among all 96 respondents, barriers reported included time constraints (49%) and a lack of appropriate reimbursement (43.8%). CONCLUSION: Few HC-trained NC outpatient pharmacists are prescribing HCs. Addressing prescribing barriers would potentially expand the scope of this service and further innovate the outpatient pharmacy setting.

Comparison of Student Pharmacists' Knowledge Retention Utilizing Electronic Health Records Versus Simultaneously Completing Simulated Experiences.

Objective. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the addition of standardized patients or the addition of interprofessional student teams with standardized patients to the use of a simulated electronic health record improved student knowledge retention and perceptions.Methods. This was a prospective cohort study assessing three cohorts of first-year student pharmacists in pharmacy skills laboratory activities that occurred in 2018, 2019, and 2021. The primary objective of the study was to compare knowledge retention of the case material between groups at one month. Each year, an element of simulated experience was added onto the previous year's case. In 2018, students completed the case using only the electronic health record web application. In 2019, the previous year's experience was combined with an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) with standardized patients. In 2021, the 2019 experience was supplemented with student physician assistants. Case scores and student perceptions were also compared between groups.Results. Of the 260 potential participants, 238 students were included in the primary analysis. Results showed that with the addition of interprofessional team-based care and standardized patients, significant improvement was demonstrated in knowledge retention assessments at one month. Mean knowledge retention assessment scores for the 2018, 2019, and 2021 groups were 63.8%, 71.7%, and 76.1%, respectively. Significant improvement was also found in student perceptions.Conclusion. Adding standardized patients and interprofessional team-based care to a pharmacy skills laboratory that uses a simulated electronic health record significantly improved student knowledge retention and perceptions.

The Evolving Role of the Pharmacist in Interprofessional Practice.

An important facet of pharmacist training is interprofessional education (IPE), which prepares students to think and practice collaboratively. As health profession programs continue to emphasize IPE across curricula, it is also important to integrate IPE into continuing education programming for licensed clinicians to promote improved patient care and outcomes.

Treating nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a review of efficacy and safety.

OBJECTIVE: To review current literature for the efficacy and safety of treatment for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). DATA SOURCES: A PubMed literature search from January 1990 to June 2017 was conducted using the search terms nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes mellitus, type 2, therapy, treatment, treat, therapeutics, nonalcoholic fatty liver, nonalcoholic hepatosteatosis, NASH, NAFLD, metformin, and statin. Bibliographies of chosen articles were reviewed. STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION: Relevant articles on metformin, thiazolidinediones (TZD), glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA), and statins for the treatment of NAFLD which included patients with T2DM were reviewed. A total of 23 relevant studies were found and included randomized controlled, observational, and open-label designs, as well as three meta-analyses. DATA SYNTHESIS: Metformin combined with weight loss provides a modest improvement in steatosis and no improvement in fibrosis in patients with NAFLD and T2DM. TZDs showed positive results on fibrosis and resolution of NASH but at least half of patients studied were nonresponders. GLP-1 RAs also showed favorable results on reductions in transaminases and steatosis and improvements in insulin sensitivity and weight loss but lack efficacy data for resolution of NASH or improvement in fibrosis scores. Statins showed favorable results on reductions in transaminases but mixed results for improvement in steatosis and fibrosis scores. CONCLUSION: All reviewed treatment options are safe for management of NAFLD in patients with T2DM but long-term histological improvements are minimal. TZDs are efficacious for resolution of NASH and improvements in fibrosis but long-term use is required to maintain these results.

Impact of Standardized Simulated Patients on First-Year Pharmacy Students' Knowledge Retention of Insulin Injection Technique and Counseling Skills.

Objective. To compare pre- and post-intervention test scores assessing insulin injection technique and counseling skills among P1 students with (intervention) or without (control) simulated patients, and to compare counseling checklist and knowledge retention test scores between groups. Methods. This study utilized cluster randomization. In addition to traditional instruction, the intervention group counseled a simulated patient on the use of insulin using the teach-back method. Test score changes from baseline were analyzed via two-sample t-test. Results. The intervention group exhibited a significantly greater increase in knowledge test scores from baseline compared to the control group. Similar changes were seen in post-instruction counseling checklist scores and knowledge retention test scores from baseline. Conclusion. Simulated patient interactions, when added to traditional coursework within a P1 skills lab, improve student counseling aptitude and knowledge retention scores.

The Role of Pharmacists as Immunizers in North Carolina.

Pharmacists are well-equipped to provide information to other health care providers on immunizations that may benefit patients, and can administer these immunizations in the pharmacy setting. Pharmacists have positively impacted vaccination rates, especially among patients who infrequently visit other health care providers or have reduced access to care. North Carolina has expanded the list of vaccinations pharmacists can provide, which helps to promote disease prevention and improve population health.

Teaching medication adherence in US colleges and schools of pharmacy.

OBJECTIVE: To determine and describe the nature and extent of medication adherence education in US colleges and schools of pharmacy. METHODS: A mixed-methods research study was conducted that included a national survey of pharmacy faculty members, a national survey of pharmacy students, and phone interviews of 3 faculty members and 6 preceptors. RESULTS: The majority of faculty members and students agreed that background concepts in medication adherence are well covered in pharmacy curricula. Approximately 40% to 65% of the students sampled were not familiar with several adherence interventions. The 6 preceptors who were interviewed felt they were not well-informed on adherence interventions, unclear on what students knew about adherence, and challenged to provide adherence-related activities for students during practice experiences because of practice time constraints. CONCLUSIONS: Intermediate and advanced concepts in medication adherence, such as conducting interventions, are not adequately covered in pharmacy curriculums; therefore stakeholders in pharmacy education must develop national standards and tools to ensure consistent and adequate medication adherence education.