Self-Assembled Micelles Based on Ginsenoside Rg5 for the Targeted Treatment of PTX-Resistant Tumors.

Paclitaxel (PTX) is one of the first-line drugs for prostate cancer (PC) treatment. However, the poor water solubility, inadequate specific targeting ability, multidrug resistance, and severe neurotoxicity are far from being fully resolved, despite diverse PTX formulations in the market, such as the gold-standard PTX albumin nanoparticle (Abraxane) and polymer micelles (Genexol-PM). Some studies attempting to solve the multiple problems of chemotherapy delivery fall into the trap of an extremely complicated formulation design and sacrifice druggability. To better address these issues, this study designed an efficient, toxicity-reduced paclitaxel-ginsenoside polymeric micelle (RPM). With the aid of the inherent amphiphilic molecular structure and pharmacological effects of ginsenoside Rg5, the prepared RPM enhances the water solubility and active targeting of PTX, inhibiting chemotherapy resistance in cancer cells. Moreover, the polymeric micelles demonstrated favorable anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects, providing ideas for the development of new clinical anti-PC preparations.

Research Progress on the Mechanism of Nanoparticles Crossing the Intestinal Epithelial Cell Membrane.

Improving the stability of drugs in the gastrointestinal tract and their penetration ability in the mucosal layer by implementing a nanoparticle delivery strategy is currently a research focus in the pharmaceutical field. However, for most drugs, nanoparticles failed in enhancing their oral absorption on a large scale (4 folds or above), which hinders their clinical application. Recently, several researchers have proved that the intestinal epithelial cell membrane crossing behaviors of nanoparticles deeply influenced their oral absorption, and relevant reviews were rare. In this paper, we systematically review the behaviors of nanoparticles in the intestinal epithelial cell membrane and mainly focus on their intracellular mechanism. The three key complex intracellular processes of nanoparticles are described: uptake by intestinal epithelial cells on the apical side, intracellular transport and basal side exocytosis. We believe that this review will help scientists understand the in vivo performance of nanoparticles in the intestinal epithelial cell membrane and assist in the design of novel strategies for further improving the bioavailability of nanoparticles.

Multi-functional chitosan copolymer modified nanocrystals as oral andrographolide delivery systems for enhanced bioavailability and anti-inflammatory efficacy.

Modifying nanocrystals with functional materials have been common strategy to enlarge the enhancing ability on oral absorption via nanocrystals; however, whether the functional materials have played their full enhancing ability in oral absorption is still unknown. In this study, we synthetized a novel chitosan-based copolymer (the copolymer of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), chitosan (CS) and D-α-Tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate, SDS-CS-TPGS), and modified nanocrystals with this copolymer, aiming to enhance the oral absorption of polymer andrographolide (ADR). In real-time distribution study, we found the distribution of ADR, SDS, CS and TPGS varies in gastrointestinal tract, while the distribution of ADR and SDS-CS-TPGS was similar, revealing the SDS-CS-TPGS could able to participate in the absorption process of andrographolide timely. To explore the oral absorption enhancing ability of SDS-CS-TPGS, we prepared a series of nanocrystals modified with different materials and explored their pharmacokinetic performances on SD rats. The results showed the nanocrystals modified with SDS-CS-TPGS (S-C-TANs) exhibited the highest bioavailability, which could enhance the AUC0-∞ of ADR from 1.291 mg/L*h to 5.275 mg/L*h (enhanced for about 4.09-folds). The enhanced anti- inflammatory efficacy was also found on ICR mice by employing ear swelling rate, TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6 and pharmacodynamic index. These results indicated that modified with synthesized copolymer containing different functional stabilizers is an efficient strategy to enlarge the enhancing ability on oral absorption of nanocrystals.

Nanocrystal-Loaded Micelles for the Enhanced In Vivo Circulation of Docetaxel.

Prolonging in vivo circulation has proved to be an efficient route for enhancing the therapeutic effect of rapidly metabolized drugs. In this study, we aimed to construct a nanocrystal-loaded micelles delivery system to enhance the blood circulation of docetaxel (DOC). We employed high-pressure homogenization to prepare docetaxel nanocrystals (DOC(Nc)), and then produced docetaxel nanocrystal-loaded micelles (DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA) by a thin-film hydration method. The particle sizes of optimized DOC(Nc), docetaxel micelles (DOC@mPEG-PLA), and DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA were 168.4, 36.3, and 72.5 nm, respectively. The crystallinity of docetaxel was decreased after transforming it into nanocrystals, and the crystalline state of docetaxel in micelles was amorphous. The constructed DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA showed good stability as its particle size showed no significant change in 7 days. Despite their rapid dissolution, docetaxel nanocrystals exhibited higher bioavailability. The micelles prolonged the retention time of docetaxel in the circulation system of rats, and DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA exhibited the highest retention time and bioavailability. These results reveal that constructing nanocrystal-loaded micelles may be a promising way to enhance the in vivo circulation and bioavailability of rapidly metabolized drugs such as docetaxel.

Improving Oral Bioavailability of Luteolin Nanocrystals by Surface Modification of Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate.

Luteolin suffers from drawbacks like low solubility and bioavailability, thus hindering its application in the clinic. In this study, we employed sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), an efficient tight junction opening agent, to modify the surface of luteolin nanocrystals, aiming to enhance the bioavailability of luteolin (LUT) and luteolin nanocrystals (LNC). The particle sizes of SDS-modified luteolin nanocrystals (SLNC) were slightly larger than that of LNC, and the zeta potential of LNC and SLNC was -25.0 ± 0.7 mV and -43.5 ± 0.4 mV, respectively. Both LNC and SLNC exhibited enhanced saturation solubility and high stability in the liquid state. In the cellular study, we found that SDS has cytotoxicity on caco-2 cells and could open the tight junction of the caco-2 monolayer, which could lead to an enhanced transport of luteolin across the intestinal membrane. The bioavailability of luteolin was enhanced for 1.90-fold by luteolin nanocrystals, and after modification with SDS, the bioavailability was enhanced to 3.48-fold. Our experiments demonstrated that SDS could efficiently open the tight junction and enhance the bioavailability of luteolin thereafter, revealing the construction of SDS-modified nanocrystals is a good strategy for enhancing the oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs like luteolin.

Enhancing Oral Bioavailability by Paclitaxel Polymeric Micelles: Role of Transmembrane Pathways in the Oral Absorption.

The oral administration of paclitaxel suffering obstacles like poorly solubility and low permeability, causing extremely low oral bioavailability. In this study, we aim to study the role of transmembrane pathway on the absorption mechanisms of PTX-Micelles. In addition, we will further study the permeability of PTX-Micelles by employing in situ perfusion model. The results showed the PTX-Micelles could be up taken by caco-2 intact. In addition, we found that the endocytosis pathway and M cells pathway attended, while paracellular pathway absented in the transport process of PTX-Micelles. The study on in situ perfusion showed the absorption rate constant (Ka) of PTX was enhanced from 6.3, 6.1, 10.6 and 13.6 × 10-2/min to 15.1, 18.4, 45.6 and 42.9 × 10-2/min by micelles in duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon, respectively, indicating the PTX-Micelles could enhance the permeability of PTX in intestinal membrane. This study indicating that transmembrane pathway-mediated transport is an important part in the transport process of polymeric micelles, and designing formulation based on transmembrane pathways may be a promising route for oral bioavailability enhancement of poor-soluble drugs.

Bifunctional and Unusual Amino Acid ß- or γ-Ester Prodrugs of Nucleoside Analogues for Improved Affinity to ATB0,+ and Enhanced Metabolic Stability: An Application to Floxuridine.

Floxuridine (FUdR, 5-fluoro-2-deoxyuridine) was widely used in patients with tumor. But the poor activity and severe side effects have been observed in the clinic, which resulted from increased degradation cleavage of FUdR to 5-FU by thymidine phosphorylase and reduced transporter-mediated entry into cells. In this study, we have synthesized a series of l-aspartic acid ß-esters and l-glutamic acid γ-esters of FUdR to improve the metabolic stability of FUdR and target FUdR to cancer cells via amino acid transporter ATB0,+ which was exclusively up-regulated in some cancerous tissue. The uptake mechanism, stability, in vitro/in vivo antiproliferation action, pharmacokinetics, and tissue distribution were studied. The combined results showed the unusual 5'-ß-l-Asp-FUdR possessed a better tumor inhibition rate and a better metabolic stability than FUdR through a ATB0,+-mediated prodrug approach. The present study provided the first proof-of-concept of exploiting ATB0,+ for tumor-selective delivery of nucleoside analogues in the form of prodrug.

Fabrication of Fine Puerarin Nanocrystals by Box-Behnken Design to Enhance Intestinal Absorption.

Puerarin is widely used as a therapeutic agent to cardiovascular diseases in clinics in China through intravenous administration, which could elicit adverse drug reactions caused by cosolvents, hindering its application in clinics. Therefore, the development of oral dosage is urgently needed. In our previous studies, we proved that the bioavailability of puerarin increased as particle sizes of nanocrystals decreased; however, we have not optimized the best process parameters for nanocrystals. In this study, we aim to fabricate fine nanocrystals (with smallest particle size) by Box-Behnken design and study the intestinal permeability of puerarin and its nanocrystals via employing everted gut sac model and in situ perfusion model. The results showed that the Box-Behnken design could be used to optimize the producing parameters of puerarin nanocrystals, and the particle sizes of fine nanocrystals were about 20 nm. Results of everted gut sacs showed that the polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and verapamil had no influence on the absorption of puerarin and nanocrystals, and the nanocrystals could increase the Papp of puerarin for 2.2-, 2.9-, and 2.9-folds, respectively, in duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Enhanced Ka and Peff were observed on the nanocrystal group, compared with puerarin, and PVP and verapamil had no influence on the absorption of nanocrystals, while the absorption of puerarin was influenced by P-gp efflux. Combining the results mentioned above, we can conclude that the Box-Behnken design benefits the optimization for preparation of nanocrystals, and the nanocrystals could enhance the intestinal absorption of puerarin by enhanced permeability and inhibited P-gp efflux.

Multi-functional chitosan polymeric micelles as oral paclitaxel delivery systems for enhanced bioavailability and anti-tumor efficacy.

Chitosan is widely used as a permeation enhancer for oral drug delivery, although its drawbacks include a limited enhancement of drug bioavailability and an inability to form micelles. In this study, we designed a novel chitosan derivative (GA-CS-TPGS copolymer) and constructed paclitaxel micelles (PTX-Micelles) designed to have multiple functions associated with the GA-CS-TPGS copolymer (enhanced bioadhesion, inhibited P-gp efflux and drug metabolism in liver) and the micelles (enhanced solubility and permeability) to enhance the bioavailability and anti-tumor efficacy of PTX. The results showed that the PTX-Micelles system could alter the in vivo pharmacokinetic performance and therapeutic effect of PTX via its predesigned functions. The bioavailability of PTX was enhanced approximately 3.80-fold by the PTX-Micelles, and an enhanced anti-lung tumor efficacy of PTX-Micelles was observed when compared to Taxol®. The results of this study indicate that constructing micelles with a multifunctional chitosan derivative may be a promising approach to enhance the oral bioavailability and anti-tumor efficacy of poorly soluble drugs.

Optimisation of novel 4, 8-disubstituted dihydropyrimido[5,4-b][1,4]oxazine derivatives as potent GPR 119 agonists.

GPR119 is a promising target for discovery of anti-type 2 diabetes mellitus agents. We described the optimisation of a novel series of pyrimido[5,4-b][1,4]oxazine derivatives as GPR119 agonists. Most designed compounds exhibited good agonistic activities. Among them, compound 10 and 15 demonstrated the potent EC50 values (13 and 12 nM, respectively) and strong inherent activities. Moreover, significant hypoglycaemic effect of compound 15 was observed by reducing the blood glucose AUC0-2h at the dose of 30 mg/kg, which is stronger than Vildagliptin (23.4% reduction vs. 17.9% reduction).

Fabrication of ultra-small nanocrystals by formation of hydrogen bonds: In vitro and in vivo evaluation.

Poor water solubility and low bioavailability hinder the clinical application of about 70% of newly synthesized compounds. Nanocrystal technology has become a preferred way to improve bioavailability by improving solubility. However, it remains challenging to produce nanocrystals with ultra-small particle sizes to further enhance the extent of bioavailability. Herein, we constructed ultra-small puerarin nanocrystals (Pue-NCs) (20-40 nm) via formation of hydrogen bond during HPH. We confirmed the formation of hydrogen bonds by 1H NMR and FTIR, and observed the distribution of polymer chains by SEM and TEM. The absorption mechanisms were studied in Caco-2 cell monolayers, and the results showed that the major transport mechanism for puerarin was passive diffusion, meanwhile, for Pue-NCs, the passive transport and micropinocytosis-mediated endocytosis coexisted. The absolute bioavailability of Pue-NCs was 35.28%, which was 11.54 folds compared to that of puerarin. Therapeutic equivalence was demonstrated between Pue-NCs and puerarin injection at 50 mg/kg and 15 mg/kg, respectively, in isoproterenol-induced myocardial ischemia model. This study provides a novel strategy for preparing ultra-small nanocrystals by HPH to increase bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs.

Synthesis and evaluation of novel fused pyrimidine derivatives as GPR119 agonists.

A novel series of fused pyrimidine derivatives were designed, synthesized and evaluated as GPR119 agonists. Among them, cyclohexene fused compounds (tetrahydroquinazolines) showed greater GPR119 agonistic activities than did dihydrocyclopentapyrimidine and tetrahydropyridopyrimidine scaffolds. Analogues (16, 19, 26, 28, 42) bearing endo-N-Boc-nortropane amine and fluoro-substituted aniline exhibited better EC50 values (0.27-1.2 µM) though they appeared to be partial agonists.

Improved Bioavailability and Antitumor Effect of Docetaxel by TPGS Modified Proniosomes: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluations.

A novel oral drug delivery system, TPGS modified docetaxel proniosomes (DTX-TPGS-PNs), was designed to enhance the oral bioavailability and antitumor efficiency of the poorly water-soluble drug docetaxel. DTX-TPGS-PN niosomes were 93 ± 6.5 nm in size, -18.53 ± 1.65 mV in zeta potential and exhibited spherical morphology, with an encapsulation efficiency of 97.31 ± 0.60%. The system showed sustained release in both simulated gastric and intestinal fluid. The results of caco-2 monolayer, everted gut sac model and improved single-pass intestinal perfusion model transport studies showed that DTX-TPGS-PN niosomes could significantly improve the absorption of DTX. The pharmacokinetics study suggested the absolute bioavailability of DTX-TPGS-PN niosomes were 7.3 times that of DTX solution. In addition, a higher antitumor efficacy than DTX solution was demonstrated in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro and in MCF-7 tumor-bearing mice model in vivo. Our results demonstrated DTX-TPGS-PN is promising in enhancing the bioavailability and efficiency of poorly water-soluble drug DTX, and the potential of proniosomes as stable precursors for oral drug delivery.

The construction of puerarin nanocrystals and its pharmacokinetic and in vivo-in vitro correlation (IVIVC) studies on beagle dog.

Puerarin is widely used in clinics in China as a therapeutic agent for cardiovascular diseases by intravenous administration. Adverse drug reactions caused by cosolvents often increase the patients' treatment burden (high drug costs and low compliance). The development of oral formulation is urgently needed and nanocrystal technique has become a preferred way to develop oral dosage form, nowadays. In this study, high pressure homogenization (HPH) was employed to prepare puerarin nanocrystals by employing SDS as the stabilizer, and redispersibility of the nanocrystals powder was also studied. The nanocrystals prepared was characterized using DLS, DSC, XRD and SEM. A preferred in vivo-in vitro correlation was also established in this study. Pharmacokinetic studies on beagle dog showed that comparing to raw puerarin powder, both of the Cmax and AUC of puerarin nanocrystals were enhanced. From the above results, we can conclude that nanocrystal technique is an efficient technology to improve the oral bioavailability of puerarin.

Effects of particle size on the pharmacokinetics of puerarin nanocrystals and microcrystals after oral administration to rat.

Puerarin, which is extracted from traditional Chinese medicine, is widely used in clinic in China and mainly used as a therapeutic agent to cardiovascular diseases. Owing to its poor water solubility and adverse drug reactions caused by cosolvents after intravenous administration, the development of oral formulation is urgently needed. Nowadays, nanocrystals technique has become a preferred way to develop oral dosage form. In this study, we used high pressure homogenization (HPH) to prepare puerarin nanocrystals and microcrystals with different sizes ranged from 525.8 nm to 1875.6 nm and investigated the influence of particle size on pharmacokinetics. The nanocrystals and microcrystals prepared were characterized using DLS, DSC, XRD and SEM, and we found that the crystalline state of puerarin was changed during the preparation process and the drug was dispersed into HPMC. In the pharmacokinetic study, we observed an increasing of Cmax and AUC and a decreasing of CL/F with the decreasing of particle size. The AUC of the puerarin nanocrystals (525.8 nm) was 7.6-fold of that of raw puerarin suspension, with an absolute bioavailability of 21.44%. From the above results, we can conclude that nanocrystal technique is an efficient technology to improve the oral bioavailability of puerarin.