Focus on the controversial activation of human iNKT cells by 4-deoxy analogue of KRN7000.

4-Deoxy-alpha-GalCer analogues are considered weaker agonists than KRN7000 for the stimulation of human iNKT cells, but this remains strongly debated. In this work, we described a strategy toward 4-deoxy-alpha-GalCers with, as a key step, a metathesis reaction allowing sphingosine modifications from a single ethylenic alpha-galactoside precursor. The 4-deoxy-KRN7000 derivative 2, described here, induced potent cytokinic responses, comparable to those of KRN7000, both from human iNKT cells in vitro and from their murine counterpart in vivo.

Long-term evolution of the CAZY glycosyltransferase 6 (ABO) gene family from fishes to mammals--a birth-and-death evolution model.

Functional glycosyltransferase 6 (GT6) family members catalyze the transfer of galactose or N-acetylgalactosamine in alpha1,3 linkage to various substrates and synthesize structures related to the A and B histo-blood group antigens, the Forssman antigen, alphaGal epitope, and iGb3 glycolipid. In rat, mouse, dog, and cow genomes, we have identified three new mammalian genes (GT6m5, GT6m6, and GT6m7) encoding putative proteins belonging to the GT6 family. Among these, GT6m6 protein does not display major alterations of the GT6 motifs involved in binding of the divalent cation and the substrate. Based on protein sequence comparison, gene structure, and synteny, GT6 homologous sequences were also identified in bird, fish, and amphibian genomes. Strikingly, the number and type of GT6 genes varied widely from species to species, even within phylogenetically related groups. In human, except ABO functional alleles, all other GT6 genes are either absent or nonfunctional. Human, mouse, and cow have only one ABO gene, whereas rat and dog have several. In the chicken, the Forssman synthase-like is the single GT6 family member. Five Forssman synthase-like genes were found in zebrafish, but are absent from three other fishes (fugu, puffer fish, and medaka). Two iGb3 synthase-like genes were found in medaka, which are absent from zebrafish. Fugu, puffer fish, and medaka have an additional GT6 gene that we termed GT6m8, which is absent from all other species analyzed here. These observations indicate that individual GT6 genes have expanded and contracted by recurrent duplications and deletions during vertebrate evolution, following a birth-and-death evolution type.