Interleukin-3 production by basal-like breast cancer cells is associated with poor prognosis.

Breast cancer represents a collection of pathologies with different molecular subtypes, histopathology, risk factors, clinical behavior, and responses to treatment. "Basal-like" breast cancers predominantly lack the receptors for estrogen and progesterone (ER/PR), lack amplification of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) but account for 10-15% of all breast cancers, are largely insensitive to targeted treatment and represent a disproportionate number of metastatic cases and deaths. Analysis of interleukin (IL)-3 and the IL-3 receptor subunits (IL-3RA + CSF2RB) reveals elevated expression in predominantly the basal-like group. Further analysis suggests that IL-3 itself, but not the IL-3 receptor subunits, associates with poor patient outcome. Histology on patient-derived xenografts supports the notion that breast cancer cells are a significant source of IL-3 that may promote disease progression. Taken together, these observations suggest that IL-3 may be a useful marker in solid tumors, particularly triple negative breast cancer, and warrants further investigation into its contribution to disease pathogenesis.

Next-Generation JAK2 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Myeloproliferative Neoplasms: Lessons from Structure-Based Drug Discovery Approaches.

Selective inhibitors of Janus kinase (JAK) 2 have been in demand since the discovery of the JAK2 V617F mutation present in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN); however, the structural basis of V617F oncogenicity has only recently been elucidated. New structural studies reveal a role for other JAK2 domains, beyond the kinase domain, that contribute to pathogenic signaling. Here we evaluate the structure-based approaches that led to recently-approved type I JAK2 inhibitors (fedratinib and pacritinib), as well as type II (BBT594 and CHZ868) and pseudokinase inhibitors under development (JNJ7706621). With full-length JAK homodimeric structures now available, superior selective and mutation-specific JAK2 inhibitors are foreseeable. SIGNIFICANCE: The JAK inhibitors currently used for the treatment of MPNs are effective for symptom management but not for disease eradication, primarily because they are not strongly selective for the mutant clone. The rise of computational and structure-based drug discovery approaches together with the knowledge of full-length JAK dimer complexes provides a unique opportunity to develop better targeted therapies for a range of conditions driven by pathologic JAK2 signaling.

Distinct Assemblies of Heterodimeric Cytokine Receptors Govern Stemness Programs in Leukemia.

Leukemia stem cells (LSC) possess distinct self-renewal and arrested differentiation properties that are responsible for disease emergence, therapy failure, and recurrence in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Despite AML displaying extensive biological and clinical heterogeneity, LSC with high interleukin-3 receptor (IL3R) levels are a constant yet puzzling feature, as this receptor lacks tyrosine kinase activity. Here, we show that the heterodimeric IL3Rα/ßc receptor assembles into hexamers and dodecamers through a unique interface in the 3D structure, where high IL3Rα/ßc ratios bias hexamer formation. Importantly, receptor stoichiometry is clinically relevant as it varies across the individual cells in the AML hierarchy, in which high IL3Rα/ßc ratios in LSCs drive hexamer-mediated stemness programs and poor patient survival, while low ratios mediate differentiation. Our study establishes a new paradigm in which alternative cytokine receptor stoichiometries differentially regulate cell fate, a signaling mechanism that may be generalizable to other transformed cellular hierarchies and of potential therapeutic significance. SIGNIFICANCE: Stemness is a hallmark of many cancers and is largely responsible for disease emergence, progression, and relapse. Our finding that clinically significant stemness programs in AML are directly regulated by different stoichiometries of cytokine receptors represents a hitherto unexplained mechanism underlying cell-fate decisions in cancer stem cell hierarchies. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1749.

TLR7 gain-of-function genetic variation causes human lupus.

Although circumstantial evidence supports enhanced Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) signalling as a mechanism of human systemic autoimmune disease1-7, evidence of lupus-causing TLR7 gene variants is lacking. Here we describe human systemic lupus erythematosus caused by a TLR7 gain-of-function variant. TLR7 is a sensor of viral RNA8,9 and binds to guanosine10-12. We identified a de novo, previously undescribed missense TLR7Y264H variant in a child with severe lupus and additional variants in other patients with lupus. The TLR7Y264H variant selectively increased sensing of guanosine and 2',3'-cGMP10-12, and was sufficient to cause lupus when introduced into mice. We show that enhanced TLR7 signalling drives aberrant survival of B cell receptor (BCR)-activated B cells, and in a cell-intrinsic manner, accumulation of CD11c+ age-associated B cells and germinal centre B cells. Follicular and extrafollicular helper T cells were also increased but these phenotypes were cell-extrinsic. Deficiency of MyD88 (an adaptor protein downstream of TLR7) rescued autoimmunity, aberrant B cell survival, and all cellular and serological phenotypes. Despite prominent spontaneous germinal-centre formation in Tlr7Y264H mice, autoimmunity was not ameliorated by germinal-centre deficiency, suggesting an extrafollicular origin of pathogenic B cells. We establish the importance of TLR7 and guanosine-containing self-ligands for human lupus pathogenesis, which paves the way for therapeutic TLR7 or MyD88 inhibition.

Targeting human CALR-mutated MPN progenitors with a neoepitope-directed monoclonal antibody.

Calreticulin (CALR) is recurrently mutated in myelofibrosis via a frameshift that removes an endoplasmic reticulum retention signal, creating a neoepitope potentially targetable by immunotherapeutic approaches. We developed a specific rat monoclonal IgG2α antibody, 4D7, directed against the common sequence encoded by both insertion and deletion mutations. 4D7 selectively bound to cells co-expressing mutant CALR and thrombopoietin receptor (TpoR) and blocked JAK-STAT signalling, TPO-independent proliferation and megakaryocyte differentiation of mutant CALR myelofibrosis progenitors by disrupting the binding of CALR dimers to TpoR. Importantly, 4D7 inhibited proliferation of patient samples with both insertion and deletion CALR mutations but not JAK2 V617F and prolonged survival in xenografted bone marrow models of mutant CALR-dependent myeloproliferation. Together, our data demonstrate a novel therapeutic approach to target a problematic disease driven by a recurrent somatic mutation that would normally be considered undruggable.

Messing with ßc: A unique receptor with many goals.

Our understanding of the biological role of the ßc family of cytokines has evolved enormously since their initial identification as bone marrow colony stimulating factors in the 1960's. It has become abundantly clear over the intervening decades that this family of cytokines has truly astonishing pleiotropic capacity, capable of regulating not only hematopoiesis but also many other normal and pathological processes such as development, inflammation, allergy and cancer. As noted in the current pandemic, ßc cytokines contribute to the cytokine storm seen in acutely ill COVID-19 patients. Ongoing studies to discover how these cytokines activate their receptor are revealing insights into the fundamental mechanisms that give rise to cytokine pleiotropy and are providing tantalizing glimpses of how discrete signaling pathways may be dissected for activation with novel ligands for therapeutic benefit.

Persistence of myelofibrosis treated with ruxolitinib: biology and clinical implications.

Activation of JAK-STAT signaling is one of the hallmarks of myelofibrosis, a myeloproliferative neoplasm that leads to inflammation, progressive bone marrow failure, and a risk of leukemic transformation. Around 90% of patients with myelofibrosis have a mutation in JAK2, MPL, or CALR: so-called 'driver' mutations that lead to activation of JAK2. Ruxolitinib, and other JAK2 inhibitors in clinical use, provide clinical benefit but do not have a major impact on the abnormal hematopoietic clone. This phenomenon is termed 'persistence', in contrast to usual patterns of resistance. Multiple groups have shown that type 1 inhibitors of JAK2, which bind the active conformation of the enzyme, lead to JAK2 becoming resistant to degradation with consequent accumulation of phospho-JAK2. In turn, this can lead to exacerbation of inflammatory manifestations when the JAK inhibitor is discontinued, and it may also contribute to disease persistence. The ways in which JAK2 V617F and CALR mutations lead to activation of JAK-STAT signaling are incompletely understood. We summarize what is known about pathological JAK-STAT activation in myelofibrosis and how this might lead to future novel therapies for myelofibrosis with greater disease-modifying potential.

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor VAV3 participates in ERBB4-mediated cancer cell migration.

ERBB4 is a member of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)/ERBB subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinases that regulates cellular processes including proliferation, migration, and survival. ERBB4 signaling is involved in embryogenesis and homeostasis of healthy adult tissues, but also in human pathologies such as cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Here, an MS-based analysis revealed the Vav guanine nucleotide exchange factor 3 (VAV3), an activator of Rho family GTPases, as a critical ERBB4-interacting protein in breast cancer cells. We confirmed the ERBB4-VAV3 interaction by targeted MS and coimmunoprecipitation experiments and further defined it by demonstrating that kinase activity and Tyr-1022 and Tyr-1162 of ERBB4, as well as the intact phosphotyrosine-interacting SH2 domain of VAV3, are necessary for this interaction. We found that ERBB4 stimulates tyrosine phosphorylation of the VAV3 activation domain, known to be required for guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity of VAV proteins. In addition to VAV3, the other members of the VAV family, VAV1 and VAV2, also coprecipitated with ERBB4. Analyses of the effects of overexpression of dominant-negative VAV3 constructs or shRNA-mediated down-regulation of VAV3 expression in breast cancer cells indicated that active VAV3 is involved in ERBB4-stimulated cell migration. These results define the VAV GEFs as effectors of ERBB4 activity in a signaling pathway relevant for cancer cell migration.

Accumulation of JAK activation loop phosphorylation is linked to type I JAK inhibitor withdrawal syndrome in myelofibrosis.

Treatment of patients with myelofibrosis with the type I JAK (Janus kinase) inhibitor ruxolitinib paradoxically induces JAK2 activation loop phosphorylation and is associated with a life-threatening cytokine-rebound syndrome if rapidly withdrawn. We developed a time-dependent assay to mimic ruxolitinib withdrawal in primary JAK2V617F and CALR mutant myelofibrosis patient samples and observed notable activation of spontaneous STAT signaling in JAK2V617F samples after drug washout. Accumulation of ruxolitinib-induced JAK2 phosphorylation was dose dependent and correlated with rebound signaling and the presence of a JAK2V617F mutation. Ruxolitinib prevented dephosphorylation of a cryptic site involving Tyr1007/1008 in JAK2 blocking ubiquitination and degradation. In contrast, a type II JAK inhibitor, CHZ868, did not induce JAK2 phosphorylation, was not associated with withdrawal signaling, and was superior in the eradication of flow-purified JAK2V617F mutant CD34+ progenitors after drug washout. Type I inhibitor-induced loop phosphorylation may act as a pathogenic signaling node released upon drug withdrawal, especially in JAK2V617F patients.

Role of the ß Common (ßc) Family of Cytokines in Health and Disease.

The ß common ([ßc]/CD131) family of cytokines comprises granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin (IL)-3, and IL-5, all of which use ßc as their key signaling receptor subunit. This is a prototypic signaling subunit-sharing cytokine family that has unveiled many biological paradigms and structural principles applicable to the IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6 receptor families, all of which also share one or more signaling subunits. Originally identified for their functions in the hematopoietic system, the ßc cytokines are now known to be truly pleiotropic, impacting on multiple cell types, organs, and biological systems, and thereby controlling the balance between health and disease. This review will focus on the emerging biological roles for the ßc cytokines, our progress toward understanding the mechanisms of receptor assembly and signaling, and the application of this knowledge to develop exciting new therapeutic approaches against human disease.

Endothelial Bmx tyrosine kinase activity is essential for myocardial hypertrophy and remodeling.

Cardiac hypertrophy accompanies many forms of heart disease, including ischemic disease, hypertension, heart failure, and valvular disease, and it is a strong predictor of increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Deletion of bone marrow kinase in chromosome X (Bmx), an arterial nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, has been shown to inhibit cardiac hypertrophy in mice. This finding raised the possibility of therapeutic use of Bmx tyrosine kinase inhibitors, which we have addressed here by analyzing cardiac hypertrophy in gene-targeted mice deficient in Bmx tyrosine kinase activity. We found that angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced cardiac hypertrophy is significantly reduced in mice deficient in Bmx and in mice with inactivated Bmx tyrosine kinase compared with WT mice. Genome-wide transcriptomic profiling showed that Bmx inactivation suppresses myocardial expression of genes related to Ang II-induced inflammatory and extracellular matrix responses whereas expression of RNAs encoding mitochondrial proteins after Ang II administration was maintained in Bmx-inactivated hearts. Very little or no Bmx mRNA was expressed in human cardiomyocytes whereas human cardiac endothelial cells expressed abundant amounts. Ang II stimulation of endothelial cells increased Bmx phosphorylation, and Bmx gene silencing inhibited downstream STAT3 signaling, which has been implicated in cardiac hypertrophy. Furthermore, activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 pathway by Ang II treatment was decreased in the Bmx-deficient hearts. Our results demonstrate that inhibition of the cross-talk between endothelial cells and cardiomyocytes by Bmx inactivation suppresses Ang II-induced signals for cardiac hypertrophy. These results suggest that the endothelial Bmx tyrosine kinase could provide a target to attenuate the development of cardiac hypertrophy.

The ßc receptor family - Structural insights and their functional implications.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-3 (IL-3) and IL-5 are members of a small family of cytokines that share a beta receptor subunit (ßc). These cytokines regulate the growth, differentiation, migration and effector function activities of many hematopoietic cells in bone marrow, blood and sites of inflammation. Excessive or aberrant signaling can result in chronic inflammatory conditions and myeloid leukemias. The crystal structures of the GM-CSF ternary complex, the IL-5 binary complex and the very recent IL-3 receptor alpha subunit build upon decades of structure-function studies, giving new insights into cytokine-receptor specificity and signal transduction. Selective modulation of receptor function is now a real possibility and the structures of the ßc receptor family are being used to discover novel and disease-specific therapeutics.

Interleukin-3 greatly expands non-adherent endothelial forming cells with pro-angiogenic properties.

Circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) provide revascularisation for cardiovascular disease and the expansion of these cells opens up the possibility of their use as a cell therapy. Herein we show that interleukin-3 (IL3) strongly expands a population of human non-adherent endothelial forming cells (EXnaEFCs) with low immunogenicity as well as pro-angiogenic capabilities in vivo, making their therapeutic utilisation a realistic option. Non-adherent CD133(+) EFCs isolated from human umbilical cord blood and cultured under different conditions were maximally expanded by day 12 in the presence of IL3 at which time a 350-fold increase in cell number was obtained. Cell surface marker phenotyping confirmed expression of the hematopoietic progenitor cell markers CD133, CD117 and CD34, vascular cell markers VEGFR2 and CD31, dim expression of CD45 and absence of myeloid markers CD14 and CD11b. Functional experiments revealed that EXnaEFCs exhibited classical properties of endothelial cells (ECs), namely binding of Ulex europaeus lectin, up-take of acetylated-low density lipoprotein and contribution to EC tube formation in vitro. These EXnaEFCs demonstrated a pro-angiogenic phenotype within two independent in vivo rodent models. Firstly, a Matrigel plug assay showed increased vascularisation in mice. Secondly, a rat model of acute myocardial infarction demonstrated reduced heart damage as determined by lower levels of serum creatinine and a modest increase in heart functionality. Taken together, these studies show IL3 as a potent growth factor for human CD133(+) cell expansion with clear pro-angiogenic properties (in vitro and in vivo) and thus may provide clinical utility for humans in the future.

CCBE1 enhances lymphangiogenesis via A disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs-3-mediated vascular endothelial growth factor-C activation.

BACKGROUND: Hennekam lymphangiectasia-lymphedema syndrome (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man 235510) is a rare autosomal recessive disease, which is associated with mutations in the CCBE1 gene. Because of the striking phenotypic similarity of embryos lacking either the Ccbe1 gene or the lymphangiogenic growth factor Vegfc gene, we searched for collagen- and calcium-binding epidermal growth factor domains 1 (CCBE1) interactions with the vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) growth factor signaling pathway, which is critical in embryonic and adult lymphangiogenesis. METHODS AND RESULTS: By analyzing VEGF-C produced by CCBE1-transfected cells, we found that, whereas CCBE1 itself does not process VEGF-C, it promotes proteolytic cleavage of the otherwise poorly active 29/31-kDa form of VEGF-C by the A disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs-3 protease, resulting in the mature 21/23-kDa form of VEGF-C, which induces increased VEGF-C receptor signaling. Adeno-associated viral vector-mediated transduction of CCBE1 into mouse skeletal muscle enhanced lymphangiogenesis and angiogenesis induced by adeno-associated viral vector-VEGF-C. CONCLUSIONS: These results identify A disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs-3 as a VEGF-C-activating protease and reveal a novel type of regulation of a vascular growth factor by a protein that enhances its proteolytic cleavage and activation. The results suggest that CCBE1 is a potential therapeutic tool for the modulation of lymphangiogenesis and angiogenesis in a variety of diseases that involve the lymphatic system, such as lymphedema or lymphatic metastasis.

Pulmonary lymphangiectasia resulting from vascular endothelial growth factor-C overexpression during a critical period.

RATIONALE: Lymphatic vessels in the respiratory tract normally mature into a functional network during the neonatal period, but under some pathological conditions they can grow as enlarged, dilated sacs that result in the potentially lethal condition of pulmonary lymphangiectasia. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether overexpression of the lymphangiogenic growth factor (vascular endothelial growth factor-C [VEGF-C]) can promote lymphatic growth and maturation in the respiratory tract. Unexpectedly, perinatal overexpression of VEGF-C in the respiratory epithelium led to a condition resembling human pulmonary lymphangiectasia, a life-threatening disorder of the newborn characterized by respiratory distress and the presence of widely dilated lymphatics. METHODS AND RESULTS: Administration of doxycycline to Clara cell secretory protein-reverse tetracycline-controlled transactivator/tetracycline operator-VEGF-C double-transgenic mice during a critical period from embryonic day 15.5 to postnatal day 14 was accompanied by respiratory distress, chylothorax, pulmonary lymphangiectasia, and high mortality. Enlarged sac-like lymphatics were abundant near major airways, pulmonary vessels, and visceral pleura. Side-by-side comparison revealed morphological features similar to pulmonary lymphangiectasia in humans. The condition was milder in mice given doxycycline after age postnatal day 14 and did not develop after postnatal day 35. Mechanistic studies revealed that VEGF recptor (VEGFR)-3 alone drove lymphatic growth in adult mice, but both VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 were required for the development of lymphangiectasia in neonates. VEGFR-2/VEGFR-3 heterodimers were more abundant in the dilated lymphatics, consistent with the involvement of both receptors. Despite the dependence of lymphangiectasia on VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3, the condition was not reversed by blocking both receptors together or by withdrawing VEGF-C. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that VEGF-C overexpression can induce pulmonary lymphangiectasia during a critical period in perinatal development.

Structural and mechanistic insights into VEGF receptor 3 ligand binding and activation.

Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) and their receptors (VEGFRs) are key drivers of blood and lymph vessel formation in development, but also in several pathological processes. VEGF-C signaling through VEGFR-3 promotes lymphangiogenesis, which is a clinically relevant target for treating lymphatic insufficiency and for blocking tumor angiogenesis and metastasis. The extracellular domain of VEGFRs consists of seven Ig homology domains; domains 1-3 (D1-3) are responsible for ligand binding, and the membrane-proximal domains 4-7 (D4-7) are involved in structural rearrangements essential for receptor dimerization and activation. Here we analyzed the crystal structures of VEGF-C in complex with VEGFR-3 domains D1-2 and of the VEGFR-3 D4-5 homodimer. The structures revealed a conserved ligand-binding interface in D2 and a unique mechanism for VEGFR dimerization and activation, with homotypic interactions in D5. Mutation of the conserved residues mediating the D5 interaction (Thr446 and Lys516) and the D7 interaction (Arg737) compromised VEGF-C induced VEGFR-3 activation. A thermodynamic analysis of VEGFR-3 deletion mutants showed that D3, D4-5, and D6-7 all contribute to ligand binding. A structural model of the VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 D1-7 complex derived from small-angle X-ray scattering data is consistent with the homotypic interactions in D5 and D7. Taken together, our data show that ligand-dependent homotypic interactions in D5 and D7 are essential for VEGFR activation, opening promising possibilities for the design of VEGFR-specific drugs.

The basis for the distinct biological activities of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 ligands.

Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) regulate blood and lymphatic vessel development through VEGF receptors (VEGFRs). The VEGFR immunoglobulin homology domain 2 (D2) is critical for ligand binding, and D3 provides additional interaction sites. VEGF-B and placenta growth factor (PlGF) bind to VEGFR-1 with high affinity, but only PlGF is angiogenic in most tissues. We show that VEGF-B, unlike other VEGFs, did not require D3 interactions for high-affinity binding. VEGF-B with a PlGF-derived L1 loop (B-L1P) stimulated VEGFR-1 activity, whereas PlGF with a VEGF-B-derived L1 loop (P-L1B) did not. Unlike P-L1B and VEGF-B, B-L1P and PlGF were also angiogenic in mouse skeletal muscle. Furthermore, B-L1P also bound to VEGFR-2 and activated downstream signaling. These results establish a role for L1-mediated D3 interactions in VEGFR activation in endothelial cells and indicate that VEGF-B is a high-affinity VEGFR-1 ligand that, unlike PlGF, cannot efficiently induce signaling downstream of VEGFR-1.

Vascular endothelial growth factor-angiopoietin chimera with improved properties for therapeutic angiogenesis.

BACKGROUND: There is an unmet need for proangiogenic therapeutic molecules for the treatment of tissue ischemia in cardiovascular diseases. However, major inducers of angiogenesis such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF/VEGF-A) have side effects that limit their therapeutic utility in vivo, especially at high concentrations. Angiopoietin-1 has been considered to be a blood vessel stabilization factor that can inhibit the intrinsic property of VEGF to promote vessel leakiness. In this study, we have designed and tested the angiogenic properties of chimeric molecules consisting of receptor-binding parts of VEGF and angiopoietin-1. We aimed at combining the activities of both factors into 1 molecule for easy delivery and expression in target tissues. METHODS AND RESULTS: The VEGF-angiopoietin-1 (VA1) chimeric protein bound to both VEGF receptor-2 and Tie2 and induced the activation of both receptors. Detailed analysis of VA1 versus VEGF revealed differences in the kinetics of VEGF receptor-2 activation and endocytosis, downstream kinase activation, and VE-cadherin internalization. The delivery of a VA1 transgene into mouse skeletal muscle led to increased blood flow and enhanced angiogenesis. VA1 was also very efficient in rescuing ischemic limb perfusion. However, VA1 induced less plasma protein leakage and myeloid inflammatory cell recruitment than VEGF. Furthermore, angioma-like structures associated with VEGF expression were not observed with VA1. CONCLUSIONS: The VEGF-angiopoietin-1 chimera is a potent angiogenic factor that triggers a novel mode of VEGF receptor-2 activation, promoting less vessel leakiness, less tissue inflammation, and better perfusion in ischemic muscle than VEGF. These properties of VA1 make it an attractive therapeutic tool.

PV-1 is recognized by the PAL-E antibody and forms complexes with NRP-1.

Pathologische anatomie leiden endothelium (PAL-E) antibody has been used for more than 20 years as a prototype marker for vascular endothelium. The elusive target of this antibody has been claimed to be plasmalemma vesicle-associated protein-1 (PV-1) and neuropilin-1 (NRP-1). Using immunofluorescence, we show that PAL-E, anti-PV-1, anti-NRP-1, and anti-CD31 antibodies show largely identical staining patterns in the vasculature of different tissues. However, PV-1-transfected cells only bind PAL-E and anti-PV-1 antibodies, whereas NRP-1 transfectants stain with anti-NRP-1 antibodies in flow cytometry. Using lysates from tissues and transfected cells, we further confirm that the molecule recognized by PAL-E and anti-PV-1 antibodies is not NRP-1 but PV-1. Nevertheless, coimmunoprecipitation studies unambiguously demonstrate that NRP-1 can form complexes with PV-1. This connects, for the first time, 2 molecules involved in leukocyte trafficking and angiogenesis, thereby opening interesting possibilities for future research in this field.