2000 years of agriculture in the Atacama desert lead to changes in the distribution and concentration of iron in maize.

We performed a histological and quantitative study of iron in archaeological maize seeds from prehispanic times recovered from Tarapacá, Atacama Desert. Also, we examined iron distribution changes at the cell level in embryos from ancient versus new varieties of maize. Our results show a progressive decrease in iron concentration from the oldest maize to modern specimens. We interpret the results as an effect of prehispanic agriculture over the micronutrient composition of maize.

'White gold' guano fertilizer drove agricultural intensification in the Atacama Desert from AD 1000.

The archaeological record shows that large pre-Inca agricultural systems supported settlements for centuries around the ravines and oases of northern Chile's hyperarid Atacama Desert. This raises questions about how such productivity was achieved and sustained, and its social implications. Using isotopic data of well-preserved ancient plant remains from Atacama sites, we show a dramatic increase in crop nitrogen isotope values (δ15N) from around AD 1000. Maize was most affected, with δ15N values as high as +30‰, and human bone collagen following a similar trend; moreover, their carbon isotope values (δ13C) indicate a considerable increase in the consumption of maize at the same time. We attribute the shift to extremely high δ15N values-the highest in the world for archaeological plants-to the use of seabird guano to fertilize crops. Guano-'white gold' as it came to be called-thus sustained agricultural intensification, supporting a substantial population in an otherwise extreme environment.

Conformational Switching in Bcl-xL: Enabling Non-Canonic Inhibition of Apoptosis Involves Multiple Intermediates and Lipid Interactions.

The inhibition of mitochondrial permeabilization by the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL is crucial for cell survival and homeostasis. Its inhibitory role requires the partitioning of Bcl-xL to the mitochondrial outer membrane from an inactive state in the cytosol, leading to its extensive refolding. The molecular mechanisms behind these events and the resulting conformations in the bilayer are unclear, and different models have been proposed to explain them. In the most recently proposed non-canonical model, the active form of Bcl-xL employs its N-terminal BH4 helix to bind and block its pro-apoptotic target. Here, we used a combination of various spectroscopic techniques to study the release of the BH4 helix (α1) during the membrane insertion of Bcl-xL. This refolding was characterized by a gradual increase in helicity due to the lipid-dependent partitioning-coupled folding and formation of new helix αX (presumably in the originally disordered loop between helices α1 and α2). Notably, a comparison of various fluorescence and circular dichroism measurements suggested the presence of multiple Bcl-xL conformations in the bilayer. This conclusion was explicitly confirmed by single-molecule measurements of FÓ§rster Resonance Energy Transfer from Alexa-Fluor-488-labeled Bcl-xL D189C to a mCherry fluorescent protein attached at the N-terminus. These measurements clearly indicated that the refolding of Bcl-xL in the bilayer is not a two-state transition and involves multiple membranous intermediates of variable compactness.

Lipid-modulation of membrane insertion and refolding of the apoptotic inhibitor Bcl-xL.

Bcl-xL is a member of the Bcl-2 family of apoptotic regulators, responsible for inhibiting the permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane, and a promising anti-cancer target. Bcl-xL exists in the following conformations, each believed to play a role in the inhibition of apoptosis: (a) a soluble folded conformation, (b) a membrane-anchored (by its C-terminal α8 helix) form, which retains the same fold as in solution and (c) refolded membrane-inserted conformations, for which no structural data are available. Previous studies established that in the cell Bcl-xL exists in a dynamic equilibrium between soluble and membranous states, however, no direct evidence exists in support of either anchored or inserted conformation of the membranous state in vivo. In this in vitro study, we employed a combination of fluorescence and EPR spectroscopy to characterize structural features of the bilayer-inserted conformation of Bcl-xL and the lipid modulation of its membrane insertion transition. Our results indicate that the core hydrophobic helix α6 inserts into the bilayer without adopting a transmembrane orientation. This insertion disrupts the packing of Bcl-xL and releases the regulatory N-terminal BH4 domain (α1) from the rest of the protein structure. Our data demonstrate that both insertion and refolding of Bcl-xL are modulated by lipid composition, which brings the apparent pKa of insertion to the threshold of physiological pH. We hypothesize that conformational rearrangements associated with the bilayer insertion of Bcl-xL result in its switching to a so-called non-canonical mode of apoptotic inhibition. Presented results suggest that the alteration in lipid composition before and during apoptosis can serve as an additional factor regulating the permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane.

Cellular Entry of the Diphtheria Toxin Does Not Require the Formation of the Open-Channel State by Its Translocation Domain.

Cellular entry of diphtheria toxin is a multistage process involving receptor targeting, endocytosis, and translocation of the catalytic domain across the endosomal membrane into the cytosol. The latter is ensured by the translocation (T) domain of the toxin, capable of undergoing conformational refolding and membrane insertion in response to the acidification of the endosomal environment. While numerous now classical studies have demonstrated the formation of an ion-conducting conformation-the Open-Channel State (OCS)-as the final step of the refolding pathway, it remains unclear whether this channel constitutes an in vivo translocation pathway or is a byproduct of the translocation. To address this question, we measure functional activity of known OCS-blocking mutants with H-to-Q replacements of C-terminal histidines of the T-domain. We also test the ability of these mutants to translocate their own N-terminus across lipid bilayers of model vesicles. The results of both experiments indicate that translocation activity does not correlate with previously published OCS activity. Finally, we determined the topology of TH5 helix in membrane-inserted T-domain using W281 fluorescence and its depth-dependent quenching by brominated lipids. Our results indicate that while TH5 becomes a transbilayer helix in a wild-type protein, it fails to insert in the case of the OCS-blocking mutant H322Q. We conclude that the formation of the OCS is not necessary for the functional translocation by the T-domain, at least in the histidine-replacement mutants, suggesting that the OCS is unlikely to constitute a translocation pathway for the cellular entry of diphtheria toxin in vivo.

Effect of nordihydroguaiaretic acid on cell viability and glucose transport in human leukemic cell lines.

The polyphenol nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) has antineoplastic properties, hence it is critical to understand its action at the molecular level. Here, we establish that NDGA inhibits glucose uptake and cell viability in leukemic HL-60 and U-937 cell lines. We monitored hexose uptake using radio-labeled 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) and found that the inhibition by NDGA followed a noncompetitive mechanism. In addition, NDGA blocked hexose transport in human red blood cells and displaced prebound cytochalasin B from erythrocyte ghosts, suggesting a direct interaction with the glucose transporter GLUT1. We propose a model for the mechanism of action of NDGA on glucose uptake. Our study shows for the first time that NDGA can act as inhibitor of the glucose transporter GLUT1.

Dietary practices in ancient populations from northern Chile during the transition to agriculture (Tarapacá region, 1000 BC-AD 900).

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this research is to understand the relevance of diet diversity during the transition to agriculture, in ancient populations from northern Chile, especially considering the significance of marine resources and crops in a lesser degree. METHODS: A total of 14 human individuals were sampled from the Tarapacá 40 cemetery. Both bone and tooth samples were collected. Samples were studied from bone/dentine collagen for carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis; and bone/enamel apatite for carbon isotope analysis. Inferential statistical analyses were performed in order to compare Tarapacá 40 stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values with other Formative and Late Intermediate Period groups. A nonparametrical hypothesis Kruskal-Wallis test was used. RESULTS: The results show that the individuals from Tarapacá 40 are intermediate to the values observed for terrestrial and marine fauna as well as C3 and C4 plants. CONCLUSIONS: A gradual transition to crop consumption, especially maize, is suggested. This complemented the earlier hunter-gatherer tradition of marine resources and wild fruit consumption. Contrarily to the predictions made by some archaeologists, the results obtained for northern Chile contrast with the classical perspective of a "Neolithic Revolution" in which transition to agriculture occurred more abruptly and linearly.

Role of acidic residues in helices TH8-TH9 in membrane interactions of the diphtheria toxin T domain.

The pH-triggered membrane insertion of the diphtheria toxin translocation domain (T domain) results in transferring the catalytic domain into the cytosol, which is relevant to potential biomedical applications as a cargo-delivery system. Protonation of residues is suggested to play a key role in the process, and residues E349, D352 and E362 are of particular interest because of their location within the membrane insertion unit TH8-TH9. We have used various spectroscopic, computational and functional assays to characterize the properties of the T domain carrying the double mutation E349Q/D352N or the single mutation E362Q. Vesicle leakage measurements indicate that both mutants interact with the membrane under less acidic conditions than the wild-type. Thermal unfolding and fluorescence measurements, complemented with molecular dynamics simulations, suggest that the mutant E362Q is more susceptible to acid destabilization because of disruption of native intramolecular contacts. Fluorescence experiments show that removal of the charge in E362Q, and not in E349Q/D352N, is important for insertion of TH8-TH9. Both mutants adopt a final functional state upon further acidification. We conclude that these acidic residues are involved in the pH-dependent action of the T domain, and their replacements can be used for fine tuning the pH range of membrane interactions.

Membrane Association of the Diphtheria Toxin Translocation Domain Studied by Coarse-Grained Simulations and Experiment.

Diphtheria toxin translocation (T) domain inserts in lipid bilayers upon acidification of the environment. Computational and experimental studies have suggested that low pH triggers a conformational change of the T-domain in solution preceding membrane binding. The refolded membrane-competent state was modeled to be compact and mostly retain globular structure. In the present work, we investigate how this refolded state interacts with membrane interfaces in the early steps of T-domain's membrane association. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations suggest two distinct membrane-bound conformations of the T-domain in the presence of bilayers composed of a mixture of zwitteronic and anionic phospholipids (POPC:POPG with a 1:3 molar ratio). Both membrane-bound conformations show a common near parallel orientation of hydrophobic helices TH8-TH9 relative to the membrane plane. The most frequently observed membrane-bound conformation is stabilized by electrostatic interactions between the N-terminal segment of the protein and the membrane interface. The second membrane-bound conformation is stabilized by hydrophobic interactions between protein residues and lipid acyl chains, which facilitate deeper protein insertion in the membrane interface. A theoretical estimate of a free energy of binding of a membrane-competent T-domain to the membrane is provided.

Thermodynamics of Membrane Insertion and Refolding of the Diphtheria Toxin T-Domain.

The diphtheria toxin translocation (T) domain inserts into the endosomal membrane in response to the endosomal acidification and enables the delivery of the catalytic domain into the cell. The insertion pathway consists of a series of conformational changes that occur in solution and in the membrane and leads to the conversion of a water-soluble state into a transmembrane state. In this work, we utilize various biophysical techniques to characterize the insertion pathway from the thermodynamic perspective. Thermal and chemical unfolding measured by differential scanning calorimetry, circular dichroism, and tryptophan fluorescence reveal that the free energy of unfolding of the T-domain at neutral and mildly acidic pH differ by 3-5 kcal/mol, depending on the experimental conditions. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy measurements show that the free energy change from the membrane-competent state to the interfacial state is approximately -8 kcal/mol and is pH-independent, while that from the membrane-competent state to the transmembrane state ranges between -9.5 and -12 kcal/mol, depending on the membrane lipid composition and pH. Finally, the thermodynamics of transmembrane insertion of individual helices was tested using an in vitro assay that measures the translocon-assisted integration of test sequences into the microsomal membrane. These experiments suggest that even the most hydrophobic helix TH8 has only a small favorable free energy of insertion. The free energy for the insertion of the consensus insertion unit TH8-TH9 is slightly more favorable, yet less favorable than that measured for the entire protein, suggesting a cooperative effect for the membrane insertion of the helices of the T-domain.

Isotopic evidence for divergent diets and mobility patterns in the Atacama Desert, northern Chile, during the Late Intermediate Period (AD 900-1450).

The decline of the Tiwanaku state saw the emergence of two new cultures-Pica-Tarapacá and Atacama-during the Late Intermediate Period in northern Chile. Archeological evidence suggests that both groups practised maize agriculture and pastoralism, but that their interaction zones differed significantly. Marine resources are common at Pica-Tarapacá sites, even those far from coast, while Atacama sites in the desert oases and precordilleran area seem to have directed their networks towards the highlands. Here we apply stable carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotope analysis on human bone and enamel to test dietary patterns and residential mobility at two sites, Pica 8 and Quitor 6, representing the Pica-Tarapacá and Atacama cultures, respectively. Our results show that diet at the two sites indeed differed: significant but variable consumption of marine resources and maize is indicated at Pica 8, despite being an inland site, while diet at Quitor 6 was based mainly on terrestrial resources. The use of seabird guano and llama dung as fertilizers and extreme aridity may have contributed to the high nitrogen isotope values observed in Pica 8 humans. The δ(18) O values in Pica 8 individuals are generally lower than for Quitor in spite of its greater distance from the Andes. All three isotopes suggest the presence of at least five nonlocals in the 30 measured at Pica 8. This evidence for human mobility is consistent with the high levels of trade and interaction observed in the archeological record, and begins to quantify the degree of movement of specific individuals.

Outcomes of a peritoneal dialysis program in remote communities within Colombia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Colombia is a country of diverse geographic regions, some with mountainous terrain that can make access to urban areas difficult for individuals who live in remote areas. In 2005, a program was initiated to establish remote peritoneal dialysis (PD) centers in Colombia to improve access to PD for patients with end-stage renal disease who face geographic or financial access barriers. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The present study was a multi-center cohort observational study of prevalent home PD patients who were at least 18 years of age and were being managed by one of nine established remote PD centers in Colombia over a 2-year period. Data were collected from clinical records, databases, and patient interviews. Patient survival, incidence of peritonitis, and rate of withdrawal from PD therapy were assessed. RESULTS: A total of 345 patients were eligible for the study. The majority (87.8%) of patients lived on one to two times a minimum monthly salary (equivalent to US$243 - US$486). On average, patients traveled 1.2 hours and 4.3 hours from their home to their remote PD center or an urban reference renal clinic, respectively. The incidence rate of peritonitis was 2.54 episodes per 100 patient-months of therapy. A bivariate analysis showed a significantly higher risk of peritonitis in patients who were living on less than one times a monthly minimum salary (p < 0.05) or who had a dirt, cement, or unfinished wood floor (p < 0.05). The 1-year and 2-year patient survival rates were 92.44% and 81.55%, respectively. The 1-year and 2-year technique survival rates were 97.27% and 89.78%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: With the support of remote PD centers that mitigate geographic and financial barriers to healthcare, home PD therapy is a safe and appropriate treatment option for patients who live in remote areas in Colombia.

Distribution and chemical speciation of arsenic in ancient human hair using synchrotron radiation.

Pre-Columbian populations that inhabited the Tarapacá mid river valley in the Atacama Desert in Chile during the Middle Horizon and Late Intermediate Period (AD 500-1450) show patterns of chronic poisoning due to exposure to geogenic arsenic. Exposure of these people to arsenic was assessed using synchrotron-based elemental X-ray fluorescence mapping, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectromicroscopy measurements on ancient human hair. These combined techniques of high sensitivity and specificity enabled the discrimination between endogenous and exogenous processes that has been an analytical challenge for archeological studies and criminal investigations in which hair is used as a proxy of premortem metabolism. The high concentration of arsenic mainly in the form of inorganic As(III) and As(V) detected in the hair suggests chronic arsenicism through ingestion of As-polluted water rather than external contamination by the deposition of heavy metals due to metallophilic soil microbes or diffusion of arsenic from the soil. A decrease in arsenic concentration from the proximal to the distal end of the hair shaft analyzed may indicate a change in the diet due to mobility, though chemical or microbiologically induced processes during burial cannot be entirely ruled out.

Comparison of membrane insertion pathways of the apoptotic regulator Bcl-xL and the diphtheria toxin translocation domain.

The diphtheria toxin translocation domain (T-domain) and the apoptotic repressor Bcl-xL are membrane proteins that adopt their final topology by switching folds from a water-soluble to a membrane-inserted state. While the exact molecular mechanisms of this transition are not clearly understood in either case, the similarity in the structures of soluble states of the T-domain and Bcl-xL led to the suggestion that their membrane insertion pathways will be similar, as well. Previously, we have applied an array of spectroscopic methods to characterize the pH-triggered refolding and membrane insertion of the diphtheria toxin T-domain. Here, we use the same set of methods to describe the membrane insertion pathway of Bcl-xL, which allows us to make a direct comparison between both systems with respect to the thermodynamic stability in solution, pH-dependent membrane association, and transmembrane insertion. Thermal denaturation measured by circular dichroism indicates that, unlike the T-domain, Bcl-xL does not undergo a pH-dependent destabilization of the structure. Förster resonance energy transfer measurements demonstrate that Bcl-xL undergoes reversible membrane association modulated by the presence of anionic lipids, suggesting that formation of the membrane-competent form occurs close to the membrane interface. Membrane insertion of the main hydrophobic helical hairpin of Bcl-xL, α5-α6, was studied by site-selective attachment of environment-sensitive dye NBD. In contrast to the insertion of the corresponding TH8-TH9 hairpin into the T-domain, insertion of α5-α6 was found not to depend strongly on the presence of anionic lipids. Taken together, our results indicate that while Bcl-xL and the T-domain share structural similarities, their modes of conformational switching and membrane insertion pathways are distinctly different.

pH-triggered conformational switching of the diphtheria toxin T-domain: the roles of N-terminal histidines.

pH-induced conformational switching is essential for functioning of diphtheria toxin, which undergoes a membrane insertion/translocation transition triggered by endosomal acidification as a key step of cellular entry. In order to establish the sequence of molecular rearrangements and side-chain protonation accompanying the formation of the membrane-competent state of the toxin's translocation (T) domain, we have developed and applied an integrated approach that combines multiple techniques of computational chemistry [e.g., long-microsecond-range, all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations; continuum electrostatics calculations; and thermodynamic integration (TI)] with several experimental techniques of fluorescence spectroscopy. TI calculations indicate that protonation of H257 causes the greatest destabilization of the native structure (6.9 kcal/mol), which is consistent with our early mutagenesis results. Extensive equilibrium MD simulations with a combined length of over 8 µs demonstrate that histidine protonation, while not accompanied by the loss of structural compactness of the T-domain, nevertheless results in substantial molecular rearrangements characterized by the partial loss of secondary structure due to unfolding of helices TH1 and TH2 and the loss of close contact between the C- and N-terminal segments. The structural changes accompanying the formation of the membrane-competent state ensure an easier exposure of the internal hydrophobic hairpin formed by helices TH8 and TH9, in preparation for its subsequent transmembrane insertion.

Resolution of the direct interaction with and inhibition of the human GLUT1 hexose transporter by resveratrol from its effect on glucose accumulation.

Resveratrol acts as a chemopreventive agent for cancer and as a potential antiobesity and antidiabetic compound, by leading to reduced body fat and improved glucose homeostasis. The exact mechanisms involved in improving hyperglycemic state are not known, but most of the glucose uptake into mammalian cells is facilitated by the GLUT hexose transporters. Resveratrol is structurally similar to isoflavones such as genistein, which inhibit the glucose uptake facilitated by the GLUT1 hexose transporter. Here we examined the direct effects of resveratrol on glucose uptake and accumulation in HL-60 and U-937 leukemic cell lines, which express mainly GLUT1, under conditions that discriminate transport from the intracellular substrate phosphorylation/accumulation. Resveratrol blocks GLUT1-mediated hexose uptake and thereby affects substrate accumulation on these cells. Consequently, we characterized the mechanism involved in inhibition of glucose uptake in human red cells. Resveratrol inhibits glucose exit in human red cells, and the displacement of previously bound cytochalasin B revealed the direct interaction of resveratrol with GLUT1. Resveratrol behaves as a competitive blocker of glucose uptake under zero-trans exit and exchange kinetic assays, but it becomes a mixed noncompetitive blocker when zero-trans entry transport was assayed, suggesting that the binding site for resveratrol lies on the endofacial face of the transporter. We propose that resveratrol interacts directly with the human GLUT1 hexose transporter by binding to an endofacial site and that this interaction inhibits the transport of hexoses across the plasma membrane. This inhibition is distinct from the effect of resveratrol on the intracellular phosphorylation/accumulation of glucose.

Crucial role of H322 in folding of the diphtheria toxin T-domain into the open-channel state.

The translocation (T) domain plays a key role in the entry of diphtheria toxin into the cell. Upon endosomal acidification, the T-domain undergoes a series of conformational changes that lead to its membrane insertion and formation of a channel. Recently, we have reported that the triple replacement of C-terminal histidines H322, H323, and H372 with glutamines prevents the formation of open channels in planar lipid bilayers. Here, we report that this effect is primarily due to the mutation of H322. We further examine the relationship between the loss of functionality and membrane folding in a series of mutants with C-terminal histidine substitutions using spectroscopic assays. The membrane insertion pathway for the mutants differs from that of the wild type as revealed by the membrane-induced red shift of tryptophan fluorescence at pH 6.0-6.5. T-Domain mutants with replacements at H323 and H372, but not at H322, regain a wild-type-like spectroscopic signature upon further acidification. Circular dichroism measurements confirm that affected mutants misfold during insertion into vesicles. Conductance measurements reveal that substituting H322 dramatically reduces the numbers of properly folded channels in a planar bilayer, but the properties of the active channels appear to be unaltered. We propose that H322 plays an important role in the formation of open channels and is involved in guiding the proper insertion of the N-terminal region of the T-domain into the membrane.

Noncompetitive blocking of human GLUT1 hexose transporter by methylxanthines reveals an exofacial regulatory binding site.

Glucose transporter (GLUT)1 has become an attractive target to block glucose uptake in malignant cells since most cancer cells overexpress GLUT1 and are sensitive to glucose deprivation. Methylxanthines are natural compounds that inhibit glucose uptake; however, the mechanism of inhibition remains unknown. Here, we used a combination of binding and glucose transport kinetic assays to analyze in detail the effects of caffeine, pentoxifylline, and theophylline on hexose transport in human erythrocytes. The displacement of previously bound cytochalasin B revealed a direct interaction between the methylxanthines and GLUT1. Methylxanthines behave as noncompetitive blockers (inhibition constant values of 2-3 mM) in exchange and zero-trans efflux assays, whereas mixed inhibition with a notable uncompetitive component is observed in zero-trans influx assays (inhibition constant values of 5-12 mM). These results indicate that methylxanthines do not bind to either exofacial or endofacial d-glucose-binding sites but instead interact at a different site accessible by the external face of the transporter. Additionally, infinite-cis exit assays (Sen-Widdas assays) showed that only pentoxifylline disturbed d-glucose for binding to the exofacial substrate site. Interestingly, coinhibition assays showed that methylxanthines bind to a common site on the transporter. We concluded that there is a methylxanthine regulatory site on the external surface of the transporter, which is close but distinguishable from the d-glucose external site. Therefore, the methylxanthine moiety may become an attractive framework for the design of novel specific noncompetitive facilitative GLUT inhibitors.

Folding of diphtheria toxin T-domain in the presence of amphipols and fluorinated surfactants: Toward thermodynamic measurements of membrane protein folding.

Solubilizing membrane proteins for functional, structural and thermodynamic studies is usually achieved with the help of detergents, which, however, tend to destabilize them. Several classes of non-detergent surfactants have been designed as milder substitutes for detergents, most prominently amphipathic polymers called 'amphipols' and fluorinated surfactants. Here we test the potential usefulness of these compounds for thermodynamic studies by examining their effect on conformational transitions of the diphtheria toxin T-domain. The advantage of the T-domain as a model system is that it exists as a soluble globular protein at neutral pH yet is converted into a membrane-competent form by acidification and inserts into the lipid bilayer as part of its physiological action. We have examined the effects of various surfactants on two conformational transitions of the T-domain, thermal unfolding and pH-induced transition to a membrane-competent form. All tested detergent and non-detergent surfactants lowered the cooperativity of the thermal unfolding of the T-domain. The dependence of enthalpy of unfolding on surfactant concentration was found to be least for fluorinated surfactants, thus making them useful candidates for thermodynamic studies. Circular dichroism measurements demonstrate that non-ionic homopolymeric amphipols (NAhPols), unlike any other surfactants, can actively cause a conformational change of the T-domain. NAhPol-induced structural rearrangements are different from those observed during thermal denaturation and are suggested to be related to the formation of the membrane-competent form of the T-domain. Measurements of leakage of vesicle content indicate that interaction with NAhPols not only does not prevent the T-domain from inserting into the bilayer, but it can make bilayer permeabilization even more efficient, whereas the pH-dependence of membrane permeabilization becomes more cooperative. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Folding in Membranes.