Optimized Decellularization of a Porcine Fasciocutaneaous Flap.

Reconstructive techniques to repair severe tissue defects include the use of autologous fasciocutaneous flaps, which may be limited due to donor site availability or lead to complications such as donor site morbidity. A number of synthetic or natural dermal substitutes are in use clinically, but none have the architectural complexity needed to reconstruct deep tissue defects. The perfusion decellularization of fasciocutaneous flaps is an emerging technique that yields a scaffold with the necessary composition and vascular microarchitecture and serves as an alternative to autologous flaps. In this study, we show the perfusion decellularization of porcine fasciocutaneous flaps using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at three different concentrations, and identify that 0.2% SDS results in a decellularized flap that is efficiently cleared of its cellular material at 86%, has maintained its collagen and glycosaminoglycan content, and preserved its microvasculature architecture. We further demonstrate that the decellularized graft has the porous structure and growth factors that would facilitate repopulation with cells. Finally, we show the biocompatibility of the decellularized flap using human dermal fibroblasts, with cells migrating as deep as 150 µm into the tissue over a 7-day culture period. Overall, our results demonstrate the promise of decellularized porcine flaps as an interesting alternative for reconstructing complex soft tissue defects, circumventing the limitations of autologous skin flaps.

A Swine Burn Model for Investigating the Healing Process in Multiple Depth Burn Wounds.

Burn wound healing is a complex and long process. Despite extensive experience, plastic surgeons and specialized teams in burn centers still face significant challenges. Among these challenges, the extent of the burned soft tissue can evolve in the early phase, creating a delicate balance between conservative treatments and necrosing tissue removal. Thermal burns are the most common type, and burn depth varies depending on multiple parameters, such as temperature and exposure time. Burn depth also varies in time, and the secondary aggravation of the "shadow zone" remains a poorly understood phenomenon. In response to these challenges, several innovative treatments have been studied, and more are in the early development phase. Nanoparticles in modern wound dressings and artificial skin are examples of these modern therapies still under evaluation. Taken together, both burn diagnosis and burn treatments need substantial advancements, and research teams need a reliable and relevant model to test new tools and therapies. Among animal models, swine are the most relevant because of their strong similarities in skin structure with humans. More specifically, Yucatan minipigs show interesting features such as melanin pigmentation and slow growth, allowing for studying high phototypes and long-term healing. This article aims to describe a reliable and reproducible protocol to study multi-depth burn wounds in Yucatan minipigs, enabling long-term follow-up and providing a relevant model for diagnosis and therapeutic studies.

Tissue engineering strategies for breast reconstruction: a literature review of current advances and future directions.

Background and Objective: Mastectomy is a primary treatment for breast cancer patients, and both autologous and implant-based reconstructive techniques have shown excellent results. In recent years, advancements in bioengineering have led to a proliferation of innovative approaches to breast reconstruction. This article comprehensively explores the promising perspectives offered by bioengineering and tissue engineering in the field of breast reconstruction. Methods: A literature review was conducted between April and June 2023 on PubMed and Google Scholar Databases. All English and French articles related to bioengineering applied to the field of breast reconstruction were included. We used the Evidence-Based Veterinary Medicine Association (EBVM) Toolkit 14 checklist for narrative reviews as a quality assurance measure and the Scale for the Assessment of Narrative Review Articles (SANRA) tool to self-assess our methodology. Key Content and Findings: Over 130 references related to breast bioengineering were included. The analysis revealed four key applications: enhancing the quality of the skin envelope, improving the viability of fat grafting, creating breast shape and volume via bio-printing, and optimizing nipple reconstruction through engineering techniques. The primary identified approaches revolved around establishing structural support and enhancing cellular viability. Structural techniques predominantly involved the implementation of 3D printed, decellularized, or biocompatible material scaffolds. Meanwhile, promoting cellular content trophicity primarily focused on harnessing the regenerative potential of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) and increasing the tissue's survivability and cell trophicity. Conclusions: Tissue and bioengineering hold immense promise in the field of breast reconstruction, offering a diverse array of approaches. By combining existing techniques with novel advancements, they have the potential to significantly enhance the therapeutic options available to plastic and reconstructive surgeons.

Effect of Donor Age and Liver Steatosis on Potential of Decellularized Liver Matrices to be used as a Platform for iPSC-Hepatocyte Culture.

Decellularization of discarded whole livers and their recellularization with patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to develop a functional organ is a promising approach to increasing the donor pool. The effect of extracellular matrix (ECM) of marginal livers on iPSC-hepatocyte differentiation and function has not been shown. To test the effect of donor liver ECM age and steatosis, young and old, as well as no, low, and high steatosis livers, are decellularized. All livers are decellularized successfully. High steatosis livers have fat remaining on the ECM after decellularization. Old donor liver ECM induces lower marker expression in early differentiation stages, compared to young liver ECM, while this difference is closed at later stages and do not affect iPSC-hepatocyte function significantly. High steatosis levels of liver ECM lead to higher albumin mRNA expression and secretion while at later stages of differentiation expression of major cytochrome (CYP) 450 enzymes is highest in low steatosis liver ECM. Both primary human hepatocytes and iPSC-hepatocytes show an increase in fat metabolism marker expression with increasing steatosis levels most likely induced by excess fat remaining on the ECM. Overall, removal of excess fat from liver ECM may be needed for inducing proper hepatic function after recellularization.

Polyethylene Glycol and Caspase Inhibitor Emricasan Alleviates Cold Injury in Primary Rat Hepatocytes.

Current methods of storing explanted donor livers at 4°C in University of Wisconsin (UW) solution result in loss of graft function and ultimately leads to less-than-ideal outcomes post transplantation. Our lab has previously shown that supplementing UW solution with 35-kilodalton polyethylene glycol (PEG) has membrane stabilizing effects for cold stored primary rat hepatocytes in suspension. Expanding on past studies, we here investigate if PEG has the same beneficial effects in an adherent primary rat hepatocyte cold storage model. In addition, we investigated the extent of cold-induced apoptosis through treating cold-stored hepatocytes with pan caspase inhibitor emricasan. In parallel to storage at the current cold storage standard of 4°C, we investigated the effects of lowering the storage temperature to -4°C, at which the storage solution remains ice-free due to the supercooling phenomenon. We show the addition of 5% PEG to the storage medium significantly reduced the release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in plated rat hepatocytes and a combinatorial treatment with emricasan maintains hepatocyte viability and morphology following recovery from cold storage. These results show that cold-stored hepatocytes undergo multiple mechanisms of cold-induced injury and that PEG and emricasan treatment in combination with supercooling may improve cell and organ preservation.

Towards Optimizing Sub-Normothermic Machine Perfusion in Fasciocutaneous Flaps: A Large Animal Study.

Machine perfusion has developed rapidly since its first use in solid organ transplantation. Likewise, reconstructive surgery has kept pace, and ex vivo perfusion appears as a new trend in vascularized composite allotransplants preservation. In autologous reconstruction, fasciocutaneous flaps are now the gold standard due to their low morbidity (muscle sparing) and favorable functional and cosmetic results. However, failures still occasionally arise due to difficulties encountered with the vessels during free flap transfer. The development of machine perfusion procedures would make it possible to temporarily substitute or even avoid microsurgical anastomoses in certain complex cases. We performed oxygenated acellular sub-normothermic perfusions of fasciocutaneous flaps for 24 and 48 h in a porcine model and compared continuous and intermittent perfusion regimens. The monitored metrics included vascular resistance, edema, arteriovenous oxygen gas differentials, and metabolic parameters. A final histological assessment was performed. Porcine flaps which underwent successful oxygenated perfusion showed minimal or no signs of cell necrosis at the end of the perfusion. Intermittent perfusion allowed overall better results to be obtained at 24 h and extended perfusion duration. This work provides a strong foundation for further research and could lead to new and reliable reconstructive techniques.

The Autonomization Principle in Vascularized Flaps: An Alternative Strategy for Composite Tissue Scaffold In Vivo Revascularization.

Autonomization is a physiological process allowing a flap to develop neo-vascularization from the reconstructed wound bed. This phenomenon has been used since the early application of flap surgeries but still remains poorly understood. Reconstructive strategies have greatly evolved since, and fasciocutaneous flaps have progressively replaced muscle-based reconstructions, ensuring better functional outcomes with great reliability. However, plastic surgeons still encounter challenges in complex cases where conventional flap reconstruction reaches its limitations. Furthermore, emerging bioengineering applications, such as decellularized scaffolds allowing a complex extracellular matrix to be repopulated with autologous cells, also face the complexity of revascularization. The objective of this article is to gather evidence of autonomization phenomena. A systematic review of flap autonomization is then performed to document the minimum delay allowing this process. Finally, past and potential applications in bio- and tissue-engineering approaches are discussed, highlighting the potential for in vivo revascularization of acellular scaffolds.

Cell transplantation-based regenerative medicine in liver diseases.

This review aims to evaluate the current preclinical state of liver bioengineering, the clinical context for liver cell therapies, the cell sources, the delivery routes, and the results of clinical trials for end-stage liver disease. Different clinical settings, such as inborn errors of metabolism, acute liver failure, chronic liver disease, liver cirrhosis, and acute-on-chronic liver failure, as well as multiple cellular sources were analyzed; namely, hepatocytes, hepatic progenitor cells, biliary tree stem/progenitor cells, mesenchymal stromal cells, and macrophages. The highly heterogeneous clinical scenario of liver disease and the availability of multiple cellular sources endowed with different biological properties make this a multidisciplinary translational research challenge. Data on each individual liver disease and more accurate endpoints are urgently needed, together with a characterization of the regenerative pathways leading to potential therapeutic benefit. Here, we critically review these topics and identify related research needs and perspectives in preclinical and clinical settings.

Modified Tail Vein and Penile Vein Puncture for Blood Sampling in the Rat Model.

Blood samples are required in most experimental animal designs to assess various hematological parameters. This paper presents two procedures for blood collection in rats: the lateral tail vein puncture and the dorsal penile vein puncture, which offer significant advantages over other previously described techniques. This study shows that these two procedures allow for fast sampling (under 10 min) and yield sufficient blood volumes for most assays (202 µL ± 67.7 µL). The dorsal penile vein puncture must be done under anesthesia, whereas the lateral tail vein puncture can be done on a conscious, restrained animal. Alternating these two techniques, therefore, enables blood draw in any situation. While it is always recommended for an operator to be assisted during a procedure to ensure animal welfare, these techniques require only a single operator, unlike most blood sampling methods that require two. Moreover, whereas these previously described methods (e.g., jugular stick, subclavian vein blood draw) require extensive prior training to avoid harm to or death of the animal, tail vein and dorsal penile vein puncture are rarely fatal. For all these reasons, and according to the context (e.g., for studies including male rats, during the perioperative or immediate postoperative period, for animals with thin tail veins), both techniques can be used alternately to enable repeated blood draws.

Alterations in Cytoskeleton and Mitochondria in the Development and Reversal of Steatosis in Human Hepatocytes.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Alterations in mitochondrial morphology and function and increased oxidative stresses in hepatocytes are well established in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Patients can undergo lifestyle changes, especially in earlier NAFLD stages, to reverse disease-induced phenotypes on a gross level. Yet, little is known about whether mitochondrial function and injuries recover upon reversal. Thus, we elucidated this question and interplays between the cytoskeletal network and mitochondria in the development and reversal of steatosis. METHODS: We cultured primary human hepatocytes stably for 2 weeks and used free fatty acid supplementation to induce steatosis over 7 days and reversed steatosis by free fatty acid withdrawal over the next 7 days. We assessed cytoskeletal and mitochondrial morphologies using immunocytochemistry and confocal microscopy. We evaluated mitochondrial respiration and function via the Seahorse analyzer, in which we fully optimized reagent dosing specifically for human hepatocytes. RESULTS: During early steatosis, intracellular lipid droplets displaced microtubules altering mitochondrial distribution, and disrupted the F-actin network, leading to loss of bile canaliculi in steatotic hepatocytes. Basal mitochondrial respiration, maximum respiratory capacity, and resistance to H2O2-induced cell death also increased as an adaptative response. Upon reversal of steatosis, F-actin and bile canaliculi were restored in hepatocytes. Nevertheless, we observed an increase in elongated mitochondrial branches accompanied by decreases in α-tubulin expression, mitochondrial proton leak, and susceptibility to H2O2-induced cell death. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the restoration of cytoskeletons morphologically upon reversal of steatosis, the mitochondria in hepatocytes were impaired owing to early adaptative respiratory increase. Hepatocytes thus were highly predisposed to H2O2-induced cell death. These results indicate the persistence of potential health risks for recovering NAFLD patients.

The Superficial Inferior Epigastric Artery Axial Flap to Study Ischemic Preconditioning Effects in a Rat Model.

Fasciocutaneous flaps (FCF) have become the gold standard for complex defect reconstruction in plastic and reconstructive surgery. This muscle-sparing technique allows transferring vascularized tissues to cover any large defect. FCF can be used as pedicled flaps or as free flaps; however, in the literature, failure rates for pedicled FCF and free FCF are above 5%, leaving room for improvement for these techniques and further knowledge expansion in this area. Ischemic preconditioning (I.P.) has been widely studied, but the mechanisms and the optimization of the I.P. regimen are yet to be determined. This phenomenon is indeed poorly explored in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Here, a surgical model is presented to study the I.P. regimen in a rat axial fasciocutaneous flap model, describing how to safely and reliably assess the effects of I.P. on flap survival. This article describes the complete surgical procedure, including suggestions to improve the reliability of this model. The objective is to provide researchers with a reproducible and reliable model to test various ischemic preconditioning regimens and assess their effects on flap survivability.

Acellular Nipple Scaffold Development, Characterization, and Preliminary Biocompatibility Assessment in a Swine Model.

BACKGROUND: The standard in nipple reconstruction remains the autologous skin flap. Unfortunately, the results are not satisfying, with up to 75% loss of nipple projection over time. Existing studies investigated the use of primates as a source of implants. The authors hypothesized that the porcine nipple can serve as a perfect shape-supporting implant because of functional similarities to the human nipple. A decellularization protocol was developed to obtain an acellular nipple scaffold (ANS) for nipple reconstruction. METHODS: Tissue samples were collected from eight disease-free female Yorkshire pigs (60 to 70 kg) and then decellularized. The decellularization efficiency and extracellular matrix characterization was performed histologically and quantitatively (DNA, total collagen, elastin, and glycosaminoglycan content). In vitro and in vivo biocompatibility was determined by human dermal fibroblast culture and subcutaneous implantation of six ANSs in a single Yorkshire pig (60 to 70 kg), respectively. Inflammation and adverse events were monitored daily based on local clinical signs. RESULTS: The authors showed that all cellular structures and 96% of DNA [321.7 ± 57.6 ng DNA/mg wet tissue versus 11.7 ± 10.9 ng DNA/mg wet tissue, in native and ANS, respectively ( P < 0.001)] can be successfully removed. However, this was associated with a decrease in collagen [89.0 ± 11.4 and 58.8 ± 9.6 µg collagen/mg ( P < 0.001)] and elastin [14.2 ± 1.6 and 7.9 ± 2.4 µg elastin/mg ( P < 0.05)] and an increase in glycosaminoglycan content [5.0 ± 0.7 and 6.0 ± 0.8 ng/mg ( P < 0.05)]. ANS can support continuous cell growth in vitro and during preliminary biocompatibility tests in vivo. CONCLUSION: This is a preliminary report of a novel promising ANS for nipple reconstruction, but more research is needed to validate results. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: Breast cancer is very common among women. Treatment involves mastectomy, but its consequences affect patient mental well-being, and can lead to depression. Nipple-areola complex reconstruction is critical, and existing methods lead to unsatisfactory outcomes.

Regenerative medicine applications: An overview of clinical trials.

Insights into the use of cellular therapeutics, extracellular vesicles (EVs), and tissue engineering strategies for regenerative medicine applications are continually emerging with a focus on personalized, patient-specific treatments. Multiple pre-clinical and clinical trials have demonstrated the strong potential of cellular therapies, such as stem cells, immune cells, and EVs, to modulate inflammatory immune responses and promote neoangiogenic regeneration in diseased organs, damaged grafts, and inflammatory diseases, including COVID-19. Over 5,000 registered clinical trials on ClinicalTrials.gov involve stem cell therapies across various organs such as lung, kidney, heart, and liver, among other applications. A vast majority of stem cell clinical trials have been focused on these therapies' safety and effectiveness. Advances in our understanding of stem cell heterogeneity, dosage specificity, and ex vivo manipulation of stem cell activity have shed light on the potential benefits of cellular therapies and supported expansion into clinical indications such as optimizing organ preservation before transplantation. Standardization of manufacturing protocols of tissue-engineered grafts is a critical first step towards the ultimate goal of whole organ engineering. Although various challenges and uncertainties are present in applying cellular and tissue engineering therapies, these fields' prospect remains promising for customized patient-specific treatments. Here we will review novel regenerative medicine applications involving cellular therapies, EVs, and tissue-engineered constructs currently investigated in the clinic to mitigate diseases and possible use of cellular therapeutics for solid organ transplantation. We will discuss how these strategies may help advance the therapeutic potential of regenerative and transplant medicine.

Human-Origin iPSC-Based Recellularization of Decellularized Whole Rat Livers.

End-stage liver diseases lead to mortality of millions of patients, as the only treatment available is liver transplantation and donor scarcity means that patients have to wait long periods before receiving a new liver. In order to minimize donor organ scarcity, a promising bioengineering approach is to decellularize livers that do not qualify for transplantation. Through decellularization, these organs can be used as scaffolds for developing new functional organs. In this process, the original cells of the organ are removed and ideally should be replaced by patient-specific cells to eliminate the risk of immune rejection. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are ideal candidates for developing patient-specific organs, yet the maturity and functionality of iPSC-derived cells do not match those of primary cells. In this study, we introduced iPSCs into decellularized rat liver scaffolds prior to the start of differentiation into hepatic lineages to maximize the exposure of iPSCs to native liver matrices. Through exposure to the unique composition and native 3D organization of the liver microenvironment, as well as the more efficient perfusion culture throughout the differentiation process, iPSC differentiation into hepatocyte-like cells was enhanced. The resulting cells showed significantly higher expression of mature hepatocyte markers, including important CYP450 enzymes, along with lower expression of fetal markers, such as AFP. Importantly, the gene expression profile throughout the different stages of differentiation was more similar to native development. Our study shows that the native 3D liver microenvironment has a pivotal role to play in the development of human-origin hepatocyte-like cells with more mature characteristics.

A Reliable Porcine Fascio-Cutaneous Flap Model for Vascularized Composite Allografts Bioengineering Studies.

Vascularized Composite Allografts (VCA) such as hand, face, or penile transplant represents the cutting-edge treatment for devastating skin defects, failed by the first steps of the reconstructive ladder. Despite promising aesthetic and functional outcomes, the main limiting factor remains the need for a drastically applied lifelong immunosuppression and its well-known medical risks, preventing broader indications. Therefore, lifting the immune barrier in VCA is essential to tip the ethical scale and improve patients' quality of life using the most advanced surgical techniques. De novo creation of a patient-specific graft is the upcoming breakthrough in reconstructive transplantation. Using tissue engineering techniques, VCAs can be freed of donor cells and customized for the recipient through perfusion-decellularization-recellularization. To develop these new technologies, a large-scale animal VCA model is necessary. Hence, swine fascio-cutaneous flaps, composed of skin, fat, fascia, and vessels, represent an ideal model for preliminary studies in VCA. Nevertheless, most VCA models described in the literature include muscle and bone. This work reports a reliable and reproducible technique for saphenous fascio-cutaneous flap harvest in swine, a practical tool for various research fields, especially vascularized composite tissue engineering.

Combinatorial Use of Therapeutic ELP-Based Micelle Particles in Tissue Engineering.

Elastin-like peptides (ELPs) are a versatile platform for tissue engineering and drug delivery. Here, micelle forming ELP chains are genetically fused to three therapeutic molecules, keratinocyte growth factor (KGF), stromal cell-derived growth factor 1 (SDF1), and cathelicidin (LL37), to be used in wound healing. Chronic wounds represent a growing problem worldwide. A combinatorial therapy approach targeting different aspects of wound healing would be beneficial, providing a controlled and sustained release of active molecules, while simultaneously protecting these therapeutics from the surrounding harsh wound environment. The results of this study demonstrate that the conjugation of the growth factors KGF and SDF1 and the antimicrobial peptide LL37 to ELPs does not affect the micelle structure and that all three therapeutic moieties retain their bioactivity in vitro. Importantly, when the combination of these micelle ELP nanoparticles are applied to wounds in diabetic mice, over 90 % wound closure is observed, which is significantly higher than when the therapeutics are applied in their naked forms. The application of the nanoparticles designed here is the first report of targeting different aspect of wound healing synergistically.

Microvascular assessment of fascio-cutaneous flaps by ultrasound: A large animal study.

Objectives: Blood perfusion quality of a flap is the main prognostic factor for success. Microvascular evaluation remains mostly inaccessible. We aimed to evaluate the microflow imaging mode, MV-Flow, in assessing flap microvascularization in a pig model of the fascio-cutaneous flap. Methods: On five pigs, bilateral saphenous fascio-cutaneous flaps were procured on the superficial femoral vessels. A conventional ultrasound evaluation in pulsed Doppler and color Doppler was conducted on the ten flaps allowing for the calculation of the saphenous artery flow rate. The MV-Flow mode was then applied: for qualitative analysis, with identification of saphenous artery collaterals; then quantitative, with repeated measurements of the Vascularity Index (VI), percentage of pixels where flow is detected relative to the total ultrasound view area. The measurements were then repeated after increasing arterial flow by clamping the distal femoral artery. Results: The MV-Flow mode allowed a better follow-up of the saphenous artery's collaterals and detected microflows not seen with the color Doppler. The VI was correlated to the saphenous artery flow rate (Spearman rho of 0.64; p = 0.002) and allowed to monitor the flap perfusion variations. Conclusion: Ultrasound imaging of microvascularization by MV-Flow mode and its quantification by VI provides valuable information in evaluating the microvascularization of flaps.

Engineering Vascularized Composite Allografts Using Natural Scaffolds: A Systematic Review.

Vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) refers to the transplantation of multiple tissues as a functional unit from a deceased donor to a recipient with a severe injury. These grafts serve as potential replacements for traumatic tissue losses. The main problems are the consequences of the long immunosuppressive drugs and the lack of compatible donor. To avoid these limitations, decellularization/recellularization constitutes an attractive approach. The aim of decellularization/recellularization technology is to develop immunogenic free biological substitutes that will restore, maintain, or improve tissue and organ's function. A PubMed search was performed for articles on decellularization and recellularization of composite tissue allografts between February and March 2021, with no restrictions in publication year. The selected reports were evaluated in terms of decellularization protocols, assessment of decellularized grafts, and evaluation of their biocompatibility and repopulation with cells both in vitro and in vivo. The search resulted in a total of 88 articles. Each article was reviewed, 77 were excluded, and the remaining 11 articles reported decellularization of 12 different vascular composite allografts in humans (4), large animals (3), and small animals (rodents; 5). The decellularization protocol for VCA varies slightly between studies, but majority of the reports employ 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate as the main reagent for decellularization. The immunological response of the decellularized scaffolds remain poorly evaluated. Few authors have been able to attempt the recellularization and transplantation of these scaffolds. Successful transplantation seems to require prior recellularization. Decellularization/recellularization is a promising, growing, and emerging developing research field in vascular composite allotransplantation. Impact statement Tissue engineering for vascular composite allotransplantation using decellularization and recellularization approach is a fast-growing area of interest in the reconstructive surgery field. This review will be a very useful tool to get a clear overview for researchers interested in this field.

Liver donor age affects hepatocyte function through age-dependent changes in decellularized liver matrix.

The only treatment available for end stage liver diseases is orthotopic liver transplantation. Although there is a big donor scarcity, many donor livers are discarded as they do not qualify for transplantation. Alternatively, decellularization of discarded livers can potentially render them transplantable upon recellularization and functional testing. The success of this approach will heavily depend on the quality of decellularized scaffolds which might show variability due to factors including age. Here we assessed the age-dependent differences in liver extracellular matrix (ECM) using rat and human livers. We show that the liver matrix has higher collagen and glycosaminoglycan content and a lower growth factor content with age. Importantly, these changes lead to deterioration in primary hepatocyte function potentially due to ECM stiffening and integrin-dependent signal transduction. Overall, we show that ECM changes with age and these changes significantly affect cell function thus donor age should be considered as an important factor for bioengineering liver substitutes.

Development of liver microtissues with functional biliary ductular network.

Liver tissue engineering aims to create transplantable liver grafts that can serve as substitutes for donor's livers. One major challenge in creating a fully functional liver tissue has been to recreate the biliary drainage in an engineered liver construct through integration of bile canaliculi (BC) with the biliary ductular network that would enable the clearance of bile from the hepatocytes to the host duodenum. In this study, we show the formation of such a hepatic microtissue by coculturing rat primary hepatocytes with cholangiocytes and stromal cells. Our results indicate that within the spheroids, hepatocytes maintained viability and function for up to 7 days. Viable hepatocytes became polarized by forming BC with the presence of tight junctions. Morphologically, hepatocytes formed the core of the spheroids, while cholangiocytes resided at the periphery forming a monolayer microcysts and tubular structures extending outward. The spheroids were subsequently cultured in clusters to create a higher order ductular network resembling hepatic lobule. The cholangiocytes formed functional biliary ductular channels in between hepatic spheroids that were able to collect, transport, and secrete bile. Our results constitute the first step to recreate hepatic building blocks with biliary drainage for repopulating the whole liver scaffolds to be used as transplantable liver grafts.